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IntroductionCloud computing is the transmission of computing as a competence rather than an industrial good, whereby common means, softw atomic number 18, and signs argon delivered to computers and other apparatuses as a service over a system (Mell & Grance, 2011). Cloud computing acclaims, characteristically unified, facilities with the transported data, software, and control through a connection. Software as a service (SaaS) is frequently touched with grease ones palms computing. End users have an access to cloud depended claims through a terminatework browser or a light weight desktop or mobile app while the occupational software and facts are deposited on servers at a distant place. Cloud applications guarantee to stretch the same or healthier service and presentation than if the software packages were connected nearby on the end-user processors.At the basis of cloud computing is the bigger idea of organization meeting (or Converged Substructure) and communal facilities. This sort of data focused environment permits enterprises to develop their requests up and running earlier, with calmer manageability and fewer upkeep, and allows IT to additional chop-chop adjust IT resources to encounter changing and unpredictable occupational demand.Cloud ClientsOperators access cloud computing consuming interacted client strategies, such as desktop processors, laptops, tablets and mobile. Among these tools, cloud clients depend cloud computing for completely or a mainstream of their requests so as to be fundamentally lack of it. Instances are thin customers and the chrome nooks establish on browsers. Numerous cloud submissions do not need precise software on the client and in its place use a net browser to interrelate through the cloud application. With AJAX and HTML5, these... ...asonable. It is also true for traditional/conventional data centers. Therefore countries with promising circumstances like Sweden, Europe and Switzerland are demanding to enthrall cloud c omputing statistics centers. Energy competence in cloud computing can consequence from energy conscious preparation and server alliance. Though, in the circumstance of dispersed clouds above data centers with dissimilar basis of energies counting renewable basis of energies, a small negotiation on energy ingesting reduction could outcome in high carbon footprint drop. This technology is expected to grow by leaps and bounds in the coming years, and may very substantially be one of the innovative technologies that spring our civilization into a new era. The speed in which information is being transferred and stored is growing constantly and there is no sign of that slowing down anytime soon.

Half My Type Regents notes :: essays research papers

The Five Themes of GeographyGeography The study of people, their environments, their resources and the interactions among themThe Five Themes of Geography are 1. Location2. Place3. Human purlieu interaction4. Movement of People Goods and Ideas5. Region1. Location Where something is located on the Earths SurfaceRelative Location of Something in relation to something else (Ex A dramatics in relation to the street address)Absolute An exact location of something on the earths muster up using the lines of latitude and longitude.Longitude The angular distance east or west of the prime meridian that stretches from the North Pole to the South Pole. Latitude An Imaginary line joining points on the earths surface that are all equal distance north or south of the equator. It measures 0o on the equator and are parallel lines. 2. Place Is and area defined by its personal and/or human characteristics.A) Physical Features Things that would be in an area if humans never exited (Ex Wildlif e, Forest, Volcanoes, Mountains, Rivers, Oceans, Hills, Valleys, etc.)B) Human Features Thins humans build, create, or influence. (Ex Buildings, Crops, Cars, Roads, Cloths, Schools, Dams, Languages, Political Systems, Economic Systems, etc)3. Human Environment Interaction Two things can happen when humans interact with environment.A) People Change The Environment Need to make easier lifestyle. (Ex Roads, Buildings, Airports, Tunnels, Bridges, etc Hidden Cost are Created ab subprogram to the environment. (Ex Deforestation, Extinction, Overpopulation, Erosion, etc)People Adapt to The New Environment This includes Genetic Change The Eskimos body adapts to Alaska harsh cold by growing an extra layer of fat, they use sleds for transportation, live in igloos that are created using ice, and wear heavy cloth.African Tribesman use little to no clothing, no body fat due to the love because body fat weighs you down, and they are fast and agile to get away from danger.Chinese stir-fry coo king was developed because minimal fuel is needed. This was created to use the limited add together of fuel they had. 4. Movement of People, Goods, and IdeasPeople Migration People move for different reasons, an example would be Refugees (war), Economy, Climate, Food, Shelter, Religion, Persecution, Political Problems, and so on.Immigration People move into a country.out-migration People move out of a country.Goods Trade Products that can be bought or sold. Import Goods brought into a country.Export Goods that leave a country. Interdependence trust on other nations to provide goods which cant be produced in their own country.

The Three Flags :: Essays Papers

The Three Flags Whenever I go into my bed populate, I see collar large flags. One drapes the stairs and two cover the walls. If I take the time to notice them, I cant help but smile. These flags atomic number 18 the national coat of arms of Germany Germanys greatest state Bavaria and the national flag of Austria. The three of them serve to remind me of the summer of my junior year. During that summer I went on a class trip to Germany and Austria. These flags have become the greatest souvenirs of the trip. When I returned, I hung them carelessly to avoid finding an appropriate storage place. without delay their presence is important for the good memories of that summer that they bring to my mind. I never had the opportunity to travel abroad as a young boy, so the European trip was extremely important to me. It was the first time I was without the supervision of my puritan parents and I remember it as if it were yesterday. All my closest friends from that period in m y life were along on the trip. The shared experiences of our lives at school continued that summer, during what was a great adventure for us all. When my present life provides me with a present moment to reflect I look at those flags and remember a great experience and great friends. I think not only of Germany, but also of other universities, other colleges, and even boot camps that have become the homes for those who shared my life and shared that summer. Its difficult to casually walk by those three flags these days and briefly reminisce over the memories they evoke. Too often I find myself staring for a minute, then sitting down in my room to revisit the joy in my mind. I take those opportunities to wonder how my good friends are doing off in their lives abroad and even to offer up a prayer for their well being. The people that I went with to Europe that summer and I now share an unbreakable bond. We still reminisce and even those who were only acquaintances at the time have become friends as if forever.

Discussing Bresslers definition of Marxism as a literary theory :: essays papers

Discussing Bresslers definition of Marxism as a literary theory Marxism is not the hot topic it once was. With the collapse of communistic U.S.S.R., mainstream North America had thought it had seen the last of Marxism and the communist party. However, with the Peoples Republic of China becoming a reality, those early beliefs may have proven to be premature. be Marxism is not difficult. Marxism is the belief that the common workingman (the proletariat) is under a rule of tyranny by the upper class owners (the materialistic.) Someday (according to Marx) the proletariats will rise up, overthrow the bourgeois and create a society of communism. Communism is the political idea in where a society would be controlled mostly by the government. Personal property would not be allowed and therefore eliminate the bourgeois a utopian society in which every man industrial plant for the common good.Marxists believe that (based on the works of Karl H. Marx) everything we do or think is infl uenced by the bourgeois. This is simple. Marxism becomes difficult when delineate it as a literary theory. The original intentions of Marx were those of social and political revolution. Many of Marxs followers however, were and ar scholars. Therefore the transition from a social economic theory to a school of literary criticism was inevitable. Charles Bressler is faced with this seeming difficult task of defining Marxism as a literary school of thought.Bressler attempts to define and explain Marxism as a school of literary thought by examining past Marxists, the assumptions which one must(prenominal) adopt and the methodology (as he does with every chapter.) He succeeds in some places and fails in others. Bresslers definition of Marxism is as follows, the belief that reality itself can be can be defined and understood, society shapes our consciousness, social and economic conditions directly influence how and what we believe and value, and Marxism details a plan for changing th e world from a place of bigotry, villainy and conflict due to class struggle to a classless society where wealth, opportunity, and education are accessible for all people. Bressler does a decent romp here. He defines Marxism as it was originally intended an economic and social view of culture and its influences. He provides a clear, simple definition of Marxism which is easily understandable.After this however, Bresslers chapter begins to slide by apart. He succeeds in giving a brief description of Marxist events and theorists, but fails in his assumptions and methodology.

Hamlet: Fate :: essays research papers

Hamlet Fate     In our world today psychics try to predict what will fade in ourfutures. What may happen in the future is controlled by a power far higher thanwhat can be seen by someone at the other end of a "1-900" telephone number. Theplay Hamlet, by Shakespe be, presents a view of the world in which mansintellect is powerless to understand and predict the whims of Fate. Man isgoverned by an uncaring and mayhap deranged power.     The characters of the play are in no way able to comprehend what may liein the future. Hamlet knows that there is something wrong with the trade unionbetween his mother (the queen) and Claudius (King Hamlets brother). Themarriage takes place just months after the slaying of King Hamlet. "Something isrotten in the state of Denmark." The characters of the play know that there arepowers at work in the kingdom.     A power that could be considered supernatural is in control of the actions of the play. Hamlet is visited on several occasions by a ghost thatoffers thought provoking information. Hamlet knows not whether to trust thespirit or disregard what he has been told. " the devil hath power Tassume apleasing occasion" Hamlet thought that the spirit may be trying to mislead him inthe quest to find his fathers killer. Characters of the play become unsure oftheir intentions due to the special(a) twists of fortune that they are dealt.     Characters in the play that were so sure of their decisions becameuncertain. This uncertainty arises when the plans of characters are somehowaltered. The alterations change the fate of many characters. Polonius was killedin the wake of Hamlets plan to find his fathers killer. Hamlet had nointention to kill anyone that did not deserve it. It was by chance that Poloniuswas in the chamber of the queen when Hamlet arrived. Polonius hid behind the shroud and was killed with a thrust of a dagger. " Time is out of joint.

Hamlet: Fate :: essays research papers

juncture Fate     In our world today psychics try to predict what will happen in our approachings. What may happen in the future is controlled by a power far higher thanwhat can be seen by someone at the other end of a "1-900" telephone number. The bring Hamlet, by Shakespe be, presents a view of the world in which mansintellect is powerless to understand and predict the whims of Fate. Man isgoverned by an uncaring and perhaps deranged power.     The characters of the shape are in no way able to comprehend what may liein the future. Hamlet knows that there is something wrong with the marriagebetween his pay back (the queen) and Claudius (King Hamlets brother). Themarriage takes place just months after the slaying of King Hamlet. "Something isrotten in the state of Denmark." The characters of the play know that there arepowers at knead in the kingdom.     A power that could be considered supernatural is i n control of theactions of the play. Hamlet is visited on several occasions by a ghost thatoffers theory provoking information. Hamlet knows not whether to trust thespirit or disregard what he has been told. " the devil hath power Tassume apleasing shape" Hamlet apprehension that the spirit may be trying to mislead him inthe quest to find his fathers killer. Characters of the play become unsure oftheir intentions due to the odd twists of fortune that they are dealt.     Characters in the play that were so sure of their decisions becameuncertain. This uncertainty arises when the plans of characters are somehowaltered. The alterations change the fate of many characters. Polonius was killedin the wake of Hamlets plan to find his fathers killer. Hamlet had nointention to kill anyone that did not deserve it. It was by chance that Poloniuswas in the chamber of the queen when Hamlet arrived. Polonius hid behind thecurtain and was killed with a hold of a dagge r. "Time is out of joint.

Paul: Meaning of Life and Cordelia Street Essay

A) FAUST (P. 493) KENNEDY TELLS US ONLY THAT IT IS A TRAGIC GRAND OPERA. EXPAND ON HIS NOTE. WHAT IS FAUST NOTED FOR? IN WHAT a nonher(prenominal) FORMS DOES THE STORY APPEAR? Faust was a man who was not happy with its own life and who essenti everyy was willing to sell his soul for more. He expects a kibibyte life filled with glamour, although also a man who has attempted suicide. It is the story of a man willing to ultimately, and symbolically, sells his soul to the devil for what he desires (capital of Minnesotas Case). Faust comes to be a metaphor of Pauls life, Paul is a lad that resembles Faust.He thinks his current life is filled with ugliness and commonness, he desires to have a life of grandeur and luxury, he is so fanciful where always imagining those finest things are happening on him. Finally he accomplished his ideate he stole $1000 from Denny & Carsons for his trip to New York, the place he always wants to go. However, as the theft has been made public and he doesn t want to go back to Cordelia, so he kills himself by jumping onto a railway track. In my opinion, this is an allusion.The contend why Cather mentioned Faust in the early paragraphs is because starting signal from that point, Paul is going to release the other Faust, which will do anything for what he desires. B) CORDELIA STREET (496) WHO WAS CORDELIA? WHAT DOES HER SAD LIFE SYMBOLIZE THAT MIGHT BE IMPORTANT IN CATHERS STORY? Cordelia is the daughter of Shakespeares King Lear, she always remain honest and true, she refused to flatter his father just so she would get an inheritance, finally she was banished by Lear with given nothing (Paul Case).Cordelia is a symbol of Pauls stubborn, the stubborn that how he fights for his dream, although in an improper way. Paul doesnt want to pretend happy, he expresses his thinking out bravely, doesnt care the consequences and others thoughts, which is similar to Cordelia. C) HE HAD NO MIND FOR THE CASH BOY spirit level (497) HINT LOOK UP HOR ATIO ALGER. Horatio Alger, Jr. was a 19th-century American author. Many of his works have been described as rags to riches stories, illustrating how down-and-out boys might be able to achieve the American Dream of wealth and success through hard work, courage, determination, and concern for others.(Wikipedia-Horatio). The Cash Boy, one of his works, narrating the protagonist succeeded after maintenance in the gutters of cities. Combining them together, we can say that the meaning of that quote is Paul doesnt want to go through the cash boy set, as the stage must be full with pains and toil. However, he was interested in the triumphs of these cash boys who had become famous (497). Which means he just wants to is skip all those toiling steps and jumps into the luxury life directly.D) IT WAS AT THE THEATRE AND AT CARNEGIE HALL THAT PAUL REALLY LIVED THE REST WAS _BUT A_ _SLEEP AND A FORGETTING_. (498) THE LAST PART OF THIS computer address (IN ITALICS) IS A SNEAKY REFERENCE TO A PO EM BY WILLIAM WORDSWORTH, CALLED INTIMATIONS OF IMMORTALITY. LOOK UP THIS POEM AND DETERMINE WHAT WORDSWORTH SAYS ABOUT THE VARIOUS STAGES OF LIFE. HOW DOES THIS RELATE TO PAULS STORY? In Intimations of Immortality, Wordsworth says, for our souls originate in a purer, more glorious realm, heaven itself.Children retain some memory of paradise, which glorifies their experiences on earth, but youths begin to pull away it, and adults, distracted by earthly concerns, entirely forget it (Wikipedia-Intimations). Carnegie Hall is a simile of Pauls paradise a place where he thinks he belongs to, and the only place he tones comfortable to stay in Cordelia Street. The only thing in his mind was his desire of luxury life and his passionate about arts. Other than that, was but a sleep and a forgetting.However, when he grows older, he may understand that everything was just a pipe dream, he will feel how stubborn he was before. Cather tries to tell out that having a dream wasnt bad, but you ha ve to act according to ones ability, if not, you will become another Paul, the one who is so foolish that suicide because of his pigheaded in the enthrallment of those glamorous thing. E) CARNATIONS (490 504) Carnation, Red Meaning Alas for my poor heart, admiration, my heart aches for you, pride, and fascination (Meaning Of Flowers).Carnation in the story has an allusion to Pauls fragility, his craving for beauty and his inability to thrive in environment, which also has a big bloodline to Paul drabs surroundings (Paul Case-2). Cather introduced the carnation at the first paragraph, it impressed me as the contrast between the adornment and Pauls outwear. In my point of view, the carnation has a meaning of dignity and also the strong passion that longs for luxury from Paul. Later, the carnations in his coat were drooping with the cold, he noticed, their red glory all over (504).From here, we can see how the carnations metaphors the thinking of Paul, it is telling us that everythi ng is over he is going to give up his dream and suicide at last. F) PAUL DROPPED BACK INTO THE IMMENSE DESIGN OF THINGS (505) WHAT PAUL WAS A REBEL. WHAT WOULD HE THINK OF BEING PART OF A DESIGN? WHICH DESIGN? DOES THIS ENDING reprobate SAY ANYTHING ABOUT PAULS ESCAPE FROM HIS PITTSBURGH LIFE? This sentence ends Pauls dream, He was not meant to be of that higher social class, and it is not his world.He is just exactly similar the people who he despises he has ended his life before doing anything of significance and is just the same as the others (E-notes). Pauls suicide does not help to escape from his Pittsburgh life, he is still the lad he was. Part of the design should be his imagination of life before, the reason he dropped back is because he died already, everything was over, he feels regretful of his impulse but theres nothing else he can do now, just like everything goes back to the starting point._BIBLIOGRAPHY_ LITERATURE AN INTRODUCTION TO FICTION, POETRY, AND DRAMA X. J . KENNEDY AND DANA GIOIA, EDS. LONGMAN, 11TH EDITION, 2009. PAULS CASE BY WILLA CATHER. WRITE MY ESSAY. 5 AUG. 2009 PAUL CASE-2. TCCAMPA. 17 FEB. 2009 convey OF FLOWERS. SHERI & BOB STRITOF. WIKIPEDIA INTIMATIONS OF IMMORTALITY. 2 MARCH. 2010 WIKIPEDIA HORATIO ALGER JR. 24 FEB. 2010 http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Horatio_Alger,_Jr. SULLYMONSTER, KRANDOG. E-NOTES, PAUL CASE. ONLINE POSTING. 12 DEC. 2009.

Fundamental Principle of Arbitration Essay

In other word, arbitration is the outcome of a private agreement between parties to root their disputes from the courts, and submit it to the decision of a private tribunal. If the principle of privacy is breached, the arbitration will be effected. The second principle is confidentiality. It is when that all takes place at arbitration is confidential. Either party or tribunal cannot disclose to third person without the consent of the other except for the purpose of the proper conduct of the arbitration.However, on that point is a question regarding to these two principles which is whether privacy automatically results in confidentiality or does it automatically demand confidentiality. There are two main areas of confidentiality which are confidentiality prior to exhibit and confidentiality after award. According to English law, there are two opinions regarding with this issue. First, if it was absence of an express term in an arbitration clause providing for confidentiality, the presumption of confidentiality will applies. Second, the common duty of confidentiality cannot be implied in a silent clause for arbitration in an agreement.However, this opinion has been criticized since it is a break with the general principle of confidentiality. In Malaysia, there is no doubt that privacy and confidentiality are regarded as essential features for the parties to the arbitration. An arbitrator in breach of the confidentiality requirements would be exposed to misconduct proceedings. Finally, the duty of confidentiality is not imperious and was subject to limited qualifications or exceptions such as consent, compulsion of law, disclosure by leave of the court or disclosure requirement for the purpose necessary of protecting the interest of an arbitrating party.

The Importance of the Concept of Cash Flow

Assignment The importance of the concept of capital- play for the business finance Definition Cash flow is the movement of bullion into or out of a business, an account or an investment. Normally, when the cash inflow is greater than the cash outflow it is a sign of a good financial situation because cash flow is essential for the survival of a business or even to any individual financial condition. If the company can meet its obligations and constrain a level-headed inflow of cash it has a reasoned situation and the management of the company can invest most of its time in developing the company.There are 3 types of cash-flows Operating cash-flows, which is the money received or spent as a result of a companys normal business activities. Investment cash-flows, which is the money received or spent through investing activities and thirdly the financing cash-flows, which is the cash received through debt or paid out as debt repayments. usage Imagine that you run a shoe factory. Ha ving cash is necessary for your business to flow. If you cave in cash you can pay your suppliers, your employees and yourself on time and so keep the business flow.Therefore if you, as an individual, receive your pay check, you can pay for all your expenses (e. g. housing, food, utilities, insurance, etc). Here we are speaking about operational cash-flow. Another way of creating cash is if you opt for purchasing and selling assets. This is normally a long term issue that can help your business grow and might lead to a net worth increase. This is called investment cash-flow. There are companies that are specialized in this area that manage funds that invest and divest in property.Finally, a third option you have is financing cash-flows. This includes any cash which comes from loans or other types of other debt that allow you to finance your cash flow. It is also used to finance the down payments made of debts. Conclusion Based on the above, one understands the importance of managing carefully the cash-flow and also having capacity to meet emergency situations in order to be protected from unexpected circumstances, be it in a business or personally.To be able to run a company in a healthy way it is important to have a good and open relationship with your banks and secure lines of credit for certain times of the year when there is a abide in the cash inflows and also when there is a specific opportunity that requires cash. Companies that manage their cash flow in a positive way have a much stronger possibility of being successful. An example of an unexpected situation, and for which many are not normally prepared, is the sudden downturn in an economy vertical like what has happened in Portugal in the past three years.The factors which have had the biggest impact in the financial viability of companies are the inflation rate and above all, the restrictions on portal to cash (e. g. loans). If a business is not able to manage its cash-flow carefully and is not capable of setting aside emergency reserves (access to loans), then in a situation like today it will not be able to finance its cash flows and might enter into default. In some cases much than the economic capacity of a company it is its financial situation that might lead to a bankruptcy.We can then say that having cash is crucial for an entity to kick the bucket because companies with ample cash on hand can invest the cash back into the business and so generate more cash and profit. An old utter When the going gets tough, Cash is King Bibliography Marques, Manuel de Oliveira, A Importancia do Correcto Entendimento do Conceito de Cashflow para a Analise e a Tomada de Decisoes Financeiras, Estudos de Economia, vol. IV, n. 4, Jul-Sept 1984. Monica Alvares Ribeiro N? 120499032

Grief Therapy: Nature and application Essay

Introduction Bereavement is viewed as a chemical formula part of human follow up and considered as well as a vital aspect to the human state. Many of those who experience the departure of a loved one receive jump out and c atomic number 18 from signifi bumt others and friends. A marginal number of divest masses face critical and at times lasting consequences while the rest of the majority manages to prevail over their sorrowfulness in the course of time. Those who find this time of bereavement and plaint incapacitating therefore select professional therapeutic athletic supporter (Corr, 1999).A lot of those Psychotherapeutic interpellations for bereavement differ extensively, and comprise individual and group techniques. Among the numerous intervention programs which were devised to diminish the anguish and distress connected with mourning is trouble therapy and has been reviewed for its effectiveness. This paper outlines the practice of sorrowfulness therapy, the stati stics surrounding its use, such as how prevalent grief therapy is, the populations which utilize it and to what degree it helps resolve issues and other relevant matters to grief therapy.Discussion Who uses grief therapy? Social worker Dennis M. Reilly states, We do not necessarily need a whole new profession of . . . bereavement counselors. We do need more thought, sensitivity, and activity concerning this issue on the part of the existing professional groups that is, clergy, funeral directors, family therapists, nurses, social workers and physicians (Worden 1991, p. 5). Trained therapists whitethorn be physicians, junior hospital or clinical medical students. Barclay et al (2003) were able to study general practitioners in Wales to ascertain how well prep atomic number 18d they ar to care for the dying. It is likely then that although there are several available professional therapists, with various support groups sprouting these days, help for the sufferer is no longer elusive. Where is grief therapy conducted and in what format?Grief therapy by and large is carried out in a constrained area (usually an office setting). These areas whitethorn be located in hospitals (for both inpatients and their families and for outpatients), mental wellness clinics, churches, synagogues, chemic dependency inpatient and out-patient programs, schools, universities, funeral home aftercare programs, employee assistance programs, and programs that serve chronically ill or terminally ill persons. Additional sites might include adult or juvenile service locations for criminal offenders. Private practice (when a counselor or therapist works for herself) is another opportunity to provide direct lymph node services (Barclay et al., 2003). When Is Grief counselor-at-law or Therapy Needed? Based on studies by umteen experts, including John Jordan, grief counselling and grief therapy techniques are lay out to test and redesigned by new research. In their article published in the journal Death Studies, Selby Jacobs, Carolyn Mazure, and Holly Prigerson state, The expiration of a family member or intimate exposes the struck person to a higher risk for several types of psychiatric disorders. These include major depressions, panic disorders, generalized anxiety disorders, posttraumatic stress disorders and increased alcohol use and abuse (Jacobs, Mazure, and Prigerson 2000, p. 185). They encourage the development of a new Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) category entitled Traumatic Grief, which would facilitate early perception and intervention for those bereaved persons affected by this disorder. exploreer Phyllis Silverman is concerned that piths dealing with the resolution of grief, especially a new category entitled Traumatic Grief, may do more harm to the mourner. She states, If this initiative succeeds (Traumatic Grief), it will soak up serious repercussions for how we consider the bereavedthey become persons who are suff ering from a psychiatric diagnose or a condition eligible for reimbursed services from mental health professionals (Silverman 2001). She feels the new DSM category may help provide the approachability of more services, but believes it is important to consider what it means when predictable, expected aspects of the life cycle experience are called disorders that require expert care.When one thinks of grief counselors and grief therapists one is again reminded that grief and bereavement is a process, not an event. How do persons cope and adapt? Grief counseling or grief therapy intervention can be useful at any point in the grief process, before and/or after a death. Grief counseling and therapy do not only begin after death. Then again, is this actually accurate? According to clinician, researcher and writer Therese Rando, Anticipatory grief is the phenomenon encompassing the process of mourning, coping, interaction, planning, and psychosocial reorganization that are stimulated and begun in part in response to the awareness of the impending loss of a loved one and the recognition of associated losses in the past, present, and future.It is rarely explicitly recognized, but the truly therapeutic experience of anticipatory grief mandates a delicate balance among the mutually conflicting demands of simultaneously holding onto, allow go of, and drawing closer to the dying patient. (Rando 2000, p. 29) Based also on in-depth studies do by Schut and Stroebe, grief therapy, when applied soon after bereavement may not alleviate but instead render therapy ineffective or else even interfere with the normal grieving manner (p.141,2005).. These scholars further say intervention is more effective for those with more complicated forms of grief.This is further confirmed from expert psychotherapist-researcher Worden who believes grief therapy is most proper in conditions that fall into three types (1) The complicated grief reception is manifested as prolonged grief (2) the grief reaction manifests itself through with(predicate) some masked somatic or behavioral symptom or (3) the reaction is manifested by an exaggerated grief response. People experiencing this kind of bereavement may not be that easy to recognize hence diagnostic techniques are authoritative tools for the practitioner (Zisook, 2000). Grief therapy is not for everyone and is not a cure for the grieving process, Worden concludes. Recent investigations as to the readiness of therapy or interventions were make in response to criticisms made a decade ago by Robak (p.701-702, 1999). He held that the bereavement research field failed to provide falsifiable studies on psychotherapy and counseling. According to Schut and Stroebe (p.142), researchers must look into that the psychological remedies or therapies for bereaved persons have been demonstrated to be successful in controlled research with a delineated population. However, in the area of grief counseling and therapy, well-establishe d interventions (i.e. those well-described and transferable, with treatment manual, tested, replicated and found effective, and accompanied by indications and counter-indications) are not available.This is largely found on stringent criteria adopted for efficacy studies (p.143). This implies that sources for the use of grief therapy, its efficacy and who practices this treatment program is therefore limited. As Schut and Stroebe (p.146) declare although small steps in the right direction are now being taken, this fundamental message still holds to create a body of sound scientific knowledge , the research agenda for the future must expand the number of well-designed and executed empirical studies on the efficacy of bereavement intervention.Synthesis and Conclusion There is a major new Report on Bereavement and Grief Research made by the Center for the Advancement of Health which settled, A growing body of assure indicates that interventions with adults who are not experiencing complicated grief cannot be regarded as dependable in terms of diminishing grief-related symptoms. The report indicated that there is very little support for the effectiveness of interventions like crisis teams that call on family members within hours of a loss, self-help groups that look to foster friendships, efforts to show the bereaved ways to work through grief and a host of other therapeutic approaches believed to help the bereaved (The New York Times, Oct.9, 2006).Counseling and therapy are opportunities for those who seek support to help move from only coping to being transformed by the lossto find a new normal in their lives and to know that after a loved one dies one does not remove that person from his or her life, but rather learns to develop a new relationship with the person now that he or she has died. In A Time to Grieve Mediations for Healing after the Death of a love One (1994) the writer Carol Crandall states, You dont heal from the loss of a loved one because time passes you heal because of what you do with the time (Staudacher 1994, p. 92). unconstipated when bereavement therapy is needed, however, the benefit may depend on the approach used. For example, most bereavement groups focus on emotional issues.These are most helpful to women. only when men tend to grieve differently, and they are more likely to benefit from an approach that focuses on their processes of thinking. Caring friends and relatives often coax those who have just suffered the loss of a loved one to seek professional help, either by taking part in a bereavement group or through individual psychotherapy. But Dr. Robert A. Neimeyer, professor of psychology at the University of Memphis, editor of the scientific journal Death Studies and chairman of the committee that prepared the new report, said in an interview Not everyone requires the same thing. Dealing with grief is not a one size fits all proposition.Moreover, Dr. George Bonanno, psychologist at Columbias Teacher s College, has found that the bereaved who naturally avoid emotions should not be forced to confront grief. Even three years later, such people show no traumatic consequences as a result of suppressing it, he reported. In more than half the cases, Dr. Neimeyer explained, far more useful than therapy to the bereaved are the empathy and emotional and physical support that friends, relatives and caring people in the neighborhood and at work can provide in the first weeks and months after a death.Only when grieving is complicated impetuous and protracted, associated with deep unrelieved depression and interfering with normal enjoyments, life tasks or an ability to work is there a clear-cut need for grief therapy, Dr. Neimeyer said. Dr. Hansson of Tulsa observes that many people who experience complicated grief have neither faced their losses nor allowed themselves to work through the emotions that naturally ensue. If, months down the road, a bereaved person is still grieving intense ly, therapy should be sought, Dr. Neimeyer said. Among the hallmarks of complicated grief he listed are intrusive thoughts about the deceased, recurrent images of how the person died, a continual quest to reconnect with the deceased, acerbic loneliness, feeling purposeless and empty, difficulty believing the death ever happened and feeling that the world cannot be trusted.Treating people with these symptoms is important because their unresolved grief can have serious, even life-threatening health consequences, including high blood pressure, stroke, heart attack, substance abuse and suicide. Such people can literally die of a dispirited heart, Dr. Neimeyer said. Perhaps the most revealing study of the varying courses of bereavement was undertaken by Dr. Bonanno, Dr. Camille B. Wortman, a psychologist at the State University of New York at Stony Brook, and six co-authors. They evaluated 1,532 people (all married, with at least one partner of each couple over age 65), then followed t hem for up to eight years. When a spouse died, they assessed the bereavement experiences of the widow or widower over time. This is what they found 1) Forty-six percent of the survivors were resilient. They experienced transitory distress, but scored low in depression both before the death and at 6 and 18 months after losing their spouses. 2) Eleven percent followed a common grief course, with rather severe depression at 6 months that had largely disappeared by 18 months. 3) Sixteen percent, who were not initially depressed, nonetheless were devastated afterward, experiencing prolonged depression.4) Eight percent were chronically depressed beforehand, with the depression worsened by the death. 5)But 10 percent who had been depressed before the death did very well afterward, perhaps because they had been in bad marriages or were relieved from the burdens of taking care of ill spouses. 6) The remain 9 percent did not fit into any category. , people may require very different therapy or no therapy at all. The available evidence therefore, points out that interventions for individuals at risk for complications of bereavement may result in some benefit for a short while.However, the findings are inconsistent and they vary based on the factors such as the gender of participants and whether they were first screened before participating in the studies, which appears to increase the likelihood that the interventions would be successful (e.g. Schut et al., 2001). The concepts of complicated grief are fairly recent in bereavement research and this is the reason that no controlled studies exist that pertains directly to its treatment (Jacobs & Prigerson, 2000, p.479).ReferencesCasarett D, Kutner JS, Abrahm J, et al Life after death a practical approach togrief and bereavement. Ann Intern Med 134 (3) 208-15, 2001.Corr, Charles A. Children, Adolescents, and Death Myths, Realities and Challenges. Death Studies 23 (1999) 443463.Bonano GA, Boerner C, Wortman B. resilient or at Risk? A 4-year study of Older Adults Who initially Showed steep or Low Distress following Conjugal Loss. J. Gerontol B. Psychol.Sci.Soc. Sci, March 1, 2005 60(2)p67-p73.Hansson R., Stroebe M Grief, Older Adulthood. In Gullota T, bloom M (eds) Encyclopedia of Primary Prevention & health promotion. New York Plenum, 2003, pp.515-521.Jacobs S & Prigerson H. (2000) .Psychotherapy of traumatic grief a review of evidence for psychotherapeutic treatments. Death Studies, 24, 479-495.Jacobs, Shelby, Carolyn Mazure, and Holly Prigerson. Diagnostic Criteria for Traumatic Grief. Death Studies 24 (2000)185199.Neimeyer R. (2000).Searching for the meaning of meanings grief therapy and the process of reconstruction. Death Studies,24531-558.Neimeyer, Robert. Lessons of Loss A Guide to Coping. New York McGraw-Hill, 1998.Rando, Therese A. Clinical Dimensions of Anticipatory Mourning. Champaign, IL Research Press, 2000.Rando TA intercession of Complicated Mourning. Champaign Research Press, 1993.Sc hut H, Stroebe M, van den Bout J, & Terheggen M, (2001). The efficacy of bereavement interventions Determining who benefits. In Stroebe, M et al.eds., Handbook of bereavement consequences, coping, and care. Washington, D.C. American Psychological Association, pp. 705-737.Schucter SR, Zisook S Treatment of bridal bereavement a multidimensional approach. Psychiatr Ann 16 (5) 295-306, 1986.Staudacher, Carol. A Time to Grieve Mediations for Healing after the Death of a Loved One. San Francisco Harper San Francisco, 1994.Stroebe, Margaret, and Henk Schut. The Dual appendage Model of Coping with Bereavement Rationale and Description. Death Studies 23 (1999)197224.Worden JW Grief Counseling and Grief Therapy. New York Springer Publishing Company, 1991.The New York Times, Oct.9,2006Zisook S & Schuchter S. (2001). Treatment of the depressions of bereavement. American Behavioral Scientist, 44(5)782-797.Zisook S Understanding and managing bereavement in palliative care. In Chochinov HM, Brei tbart W, eds Handbook of Psychiatry in Palliative Medicine. Oxford Oxford University Press, 2000, pp 321-34.

A research project to look if bullying is spiralling out of control Essay

For my research project, I decided to look at ballyrag, which is a contempery issue as over recent months it has received a lot of media attention. My hypothesis was intimidation is spiralling out of control. I used a wide range of research methods using both principal(a) and secondary sources of information including questionnaires, interviews and internet research. I also considered ethical issues and problems this research may of encountered Introduction I have decided to do my research topic on bullying. Over recent months bullying has received a lot to a greater extent media attention for a number of different reasons.One reason is the new form of bullying called Happy Slapping. This is whereby bullies learn their victims being physically abused on their mobile ph angiotensin converting enzymes. Also many serious incidents of bullying taking place such as 15 course old Natasha Jackman who was recently stabbed in her eye, back , head and chest in her school dinner queue. In July of this year the beat bullying campaign was launched, fronted by many famous stars. Bullying was defined as longstanding violence, mental or physical, conducted by an individual or a group against an individual who Is non able to defend himself or herself in that actual situation.I wish to find out if bullying is spiralling out of control or that mess are becoming more(prenominal) aware of how common bullying is. I plan to use a wide range of research methods including both primary and secondary sources. One method I will be using is questionnaires. I will give these to children in year 6 and adults between the sequence of 40-55 to find out their views on bullying. I will also interview a head teacher of a school to find out her views and I will also interview a primary school teacher. I will use a unstructured format to help me get more information.I will also ask in the interviews about how the schools deals with bullying and if they think bullying is getting worse or so ciety is becoming more aware of it. Secondary methods I will use are internet and newspapers. I will consider any ethical issues that I may contract across and try to avoid them by using the appropriate methods. One ethical issue I request to consider is confidentiality of the respondents. Also I need to be aware of emotional damage respondents may have and always be considerate. I will also get full consent from participants to express out my research and debrief them fully. Literature reviewOver recent months bullying has been increasingly talked about in the media. Sports stars Kelly Holmes and Rio Ferdinand are among the Celebes who have signed up to the beat bullying campaign to try and tackle bullying in schools. Around one in four primary school children and around one in three secondary school children are bullied at some point in their school life according to official estimates. Children were encouraged to drudge a blue wristband as a sign of solidarity.The campaign en couraged children to talk about their bullying problems and to remember their not alone. http//news. bbc. co. uk/1/ni/programmes/breakfast There has also been research done to find statistics about the issue. The NSPCC published a list of key findings. They found 31% of children experienced bullying during childhood, a further 7% were discriminated against and 14% were made to feel different. A quarter of young adults bullied by their peers during childhood reported they suffered long term denigratory effects as a result. Also research involving2300 pupils aged 10-14 from schools across England found 30% of children did not tell anyone that they had been bullied. This percentage was higher for boys and older children.

Cultural Differences between United States and Italy Essay

All societies provide for certain broad areas of social living. Wissler (200099) identified these as universal patterns of culture, such as speech, strong traits, art, mythology and scientific knowledge, religious practice, family and social systems, property, government, and war. Even within these broad areas of social living are a number of common elements. Moreover, cultures between countries differ because of the long variety of solutions people in different societies evolve in solving life problems.Amongst the important factors which give rise to heathenish differences are the kind of surroundings within which the society lives, the human and natural resources available within this environment, the extent and intensity of exposure the society has to other people from which they can borrow ideas, and their cultural heritage. This paper intent to figure out the differences between the United States of America and Italy in terms of history, languages, Ethnical diversity, cultur e, superstitions and religions. II. Discussion A.United States of America The United States veritable and grew from 13 English colonies on the Atlantic coast into an independent republic that eventually extended to the Pacific, with Alaska and Hawaii among its states. Although the original 13 colonies were British, several other nations took detonate in the discovery, exploration and settlement of the territory that became the United States. Both France and Spain once controlled more of North America than did Great Britain. Dutch and Swedish colonies existed temporarily on the Atlantic coast.Thus the beginnings of the United States, like its later development as a nation, involved contributions by people from many lands (see Graff, H. America the Glorious majority rule (2 volumes Houghton Mifflin, 2001). North America was inhabited by Indians and Eskimos long before the first Europeans arrived. White men came into contact with the Indians from the very beginning, but the Eskimos were not greatly influenced by the white mans civilization until the 20th century (see Link, A. S. , and others. American Epoch a tale of the United States since 1900, 9th edition (2 volumes Knopf, 1999).There are several(a) religions existing in the United States such as Christianity, Judaism, Buddhism, Islam, Unitarian Universalism and Hinduism while others claimed that they dont have a religion. Amongst the religions mentioned, Christianity has the greatest number as surveyed in 2001. On the other hand, English is the de facto national language of the United States. Spanish language has also been taught as non-English second language (see Boorstin, D. J. and R. F. The Landmark History of the American People, revised edition (2 volumes Random House, 1999). B. ItalyItaly is a country in the southern Europe. Jutting southward from the the Alps into the Mediterranean Sea, Italy consists mainly of a slender boot-shaped peninsula and the islands of Sicily and Sardinia. Ital is borde r by France, Switzerland, Austria, and Yugoslavia, and the Adriatic, Ionian, Tyrrhenian, and Ligurian seas. It completely encircles two tiny, independent states San Marino, east of Florence, and Vatican City, in Rome. The name Italy was first used by the Greeks for the southern tip of the peninsula, where they established colonies as primordial as the eighth century B.C. Gradually, as the peninsula came under Roman rule, the name was applied to everything south of the Alps (see Coppa, F. J. , editor. lexicon of Modern Italian History (Greenwood Press, 2000). Italy has contributed greatly to western civilization. For hundreds of years it was the center of the far-flung Roman Empire. It was in Italy that Christianity first flourished in Europe and became powerful force. Rome has long been the seat of the papacy and the military personnel center of the Roman Catholic Church.The Renaissance, the period of enlightenment that ended medieval times, began in Italy and during this period Italians contributed greatly to the intellectual and artistic development of the Western world. Italy politic preserves much of its noble past in its cities, museums, and ruins, attracting more foreign visitors than any other country in the world (see Guicciardini, Francesco. The History of Italy (Princeton University, 1999). The Italians, an Indo-European people, were colonised in theItalian peninsula by 1000 B. C. In the eighth century B. C. the Etruscans (or Tyrrhenians), who came probably from Asia Minor, founded Etruria on the west.To the south was Latium, established by the Latins, an Italian tribe, with Rome as its strongest city. farther south were Greek colonies (see Guicciardini, Francesco. The History of Italy (Princeton University, 1999). By the middle of the sixth century B. C. the Etruscans dominated central Italy, including Rome. Greeks and Romans cooperated in driving back the Etruscans. Raids by Gauls, who had crossed the Alps and settled in the Po Valley, helped weaken Etruria, and it rapidly declined (see Coppa, F. J. , editor. Dictionary of Modern Italian History (Greenwood Press, 2000).In the fourth century B. C. the Greeks made several attempts to attach the Italians, but in the third century the Greek colonies fell to Rome. From that time until the collapse of the Roman Empire, the history of Italy coincides with the history of Rome (see Coppa, F. J. , editor. Dictionary of Modern Italian History (Greenwood Press, 2000). III. Conclusion United States and Italy has many differences in terms of culture and history.However, these two countries were able to experienced invasion from other countries that tried to colonize them. References 1. Coppa, F. J. , editor. Dictionary of Modern Italian History (Greenwood Press, 2000). 2. Guicciardini, Francesco. The History of Italy (Princeton University, 1999. 3. Graff, H. America the Glorious Republic (2 volumes Houghton Mifflin, 2001. 4. Link, A. S. , and others. American Epoch a History of the United States since 1900, 9th edition (2 volumes Knopf, 1999. 5. Boorstin, D. J. and R. F. The Landmark History of the American People, revised edition (2 volumes Random House, 1999.

Comparative Formal Analysis of Artworks

The rise of civilization follows hen humankind decided to build for themselves a more stable and promising life. Culture shifts then occurred between the Paleolithic and Sumerian periods due to the civilization of Mesopotamia, and humankind developed a polytheistic farming In which rituals and worshipping came Into play. Statuettes of Worshippers (ca. 2700 BCC. ) from the Square Temple at Susquehanna, Iraq, were one of the representations of the Sumerian subtlety. The emphasis on different tree trunk parts of the sculptures signifies a shift in culture due to the rise of civilization.Life during the Paleolithic period was plain tit meager cultural resources. genus Venus of Wildflower is a tiny three-dimensional female figure, or so 4 1/4 high, created with simple sculpting tools, probably something similar to a chisel, and a piece of Limestone. The sculpture displays a woman with her pair of thin forearms resting on her breasts and a huge belly hanging above her pubic triangle. T he roundness of her body parts dominates the whole sculpture.The tools and media available at that time period deal a limit on the techniques of creation, leading to the rugged coarseness of this sculpture. In imprison with a normal human figure, Venus of Hellbender Is exaggerating out of proportions, which seems to rig women from the Paleolithic period. The title of this sculpture, Venus, may be an attempt to explain the distortion and the nakedness of her body. Venus, who is the goddess of beauty and love according to the Roman mythology, might be show as the goddess of fertility during the Paleolithic period.The figure, lacking facial features which may be covered by the braided hair, leads the audiences focuses to her enormous body parts, especially ere breasts and belly. Her belly change form out may suggest pregnancy while the conspicuous outline of her pubic triangle may represent fertility. From another point of view, Venus of Wildflower, with the voluminosity of her bo dy, may also be a symbolization of desire for abundance. The Intention of this relatively small sculpture might have been some kind of talisman men carried around or maybe It even acted as a motivation for men hunter to hunt for abundant amount of food.In this sculpture, the emphasis of womens delectate body parts Implies that mankind in the Paleolithic period tends to create what they desire, in the case of The way of sustenance, as well as the culture, changed with the rise of civilization in Mesopotamia. No longer did people in Sumerian period live a hunters live quite, they worked to create a more stable life by farming and herding, which was an evidence of civilization. Significant inventions during the Sumerian period equipped people with improved tools and media to create sculptures with better techniques.Apparently, the Statuettes of twain worshippers have a smoother bob up and texture comparing to Venus of Wildflower. The material of the statuettes was soft gypsum inl aid with shell and black limestone while Venus of Wildflower was created with limestone only. Clothing and facial features were carved onto the statuettes of the devil worshippers unlike the sculpture of Venus of Wildflower. The men wear a fringe skirt with a belt while the women wear a long robe. And instead of enormous breasts and belly, these statuettes have in general outstanding, round look.This reveals a cultural meaning of the Sumerian period that gender is differentiated not by intimate body features, but by appearance and clothing. Comparing to that of the Venus of Wildflower, the statuettes have a more normal proportion, despite the size of their eyes and hands. Although these statuettes of worshippers were manufactured in a wide range of sizes, they all have a common body gesture having a neutral facial expression and standing in effect(p) with their small hands together placed in front of their chests.The position of the hands, along with their head slightly tilted u pwards, may suggest that they are praying or begging for something from deities or any other gods and goddesses they believe in. Also, the small hands of the statuettes may imply that they have a limited ability and their huge, pitiful eyes seem to represent a desire for something in return for instance, help from the deities to cure a disease.These statuettes of worshippers were found in homes as votive figures probably because common people were not allowed to visit the Gujarat in that time period. Not only do these statuettes signifies a civilization, they also mark the shift of culture and the development of religions and beliefs. The similarities and differences of Venus of Wildflower and the Statuettes of two reshipped from two different historical time periods display a major change in the culture along with the way of living among a group of people in a society.Moreover, the emphasis on certain body parts can be viewed as the main symbolization of the individual sculpture. I n this comparison, the breasts, belly and pubic area of Venus of Wildflower represent fertility and abundance while the eyes and hand gesture of the Statuettes of two worshippers symbolize belief and desire for help. In general, different artworks created in different historical time periods usually reveal a major revolution or a shift in culture.

Nursing Practice and Profession

Nurses who argon sensitive to the legal dimensions of shape argon careful to develop a strong sense of both ethical and legal responsibility. cap sufficient charge is a nurses best legal safeguard. When working to develop ethical and legal accountabilities, nurses must manage that both deficiencies and or excesses of responsible caring are problematic. Although it is reasonable to hold oneself accountable for promoting the human easy being of the patients, nurses can err by setting unrealistic standards of responsiveness and responsibility for themselves. Prudence is unendingly requirement to balance responsible self care with care for others. Inexperienced nurses might feel all in all responsible for effecting patient outcomes beyond their control and become frustrated and sad when unable to produce the desired outcome Conversations about what is reasonable to hold ourselves and others accountable for are always helpful.Each employing institution or office staff providing nursing service has an obligation to establish a process for reporting and handling practices by individualististic or by wellness care systems that jeopardizes a patients health or safety. The American Nurses Association code of Ethics obligates nurses to report professional conduct that is incompetent, unethical or unhingedegal. For nurses, incompetent practice in measured by nursing standards, unethical practice is evaluated in light of the professional codes of ethics, speckle illegal practice is identified in terms of violation of federal legislations and laws.Nurses must respect the accountability and responsibility inherent in their roles. They brook the moral obligations in the provision of nursing care, hence they work with other health care providers in providing comprehensive health care, recognizing the perspective and expertise of each member. Nurses have a moral right to ref drill to participate in procedures that whitethorn violate their own ad hominem moral co nscience since they are entitled to conscientious objection. They must keep all schooling obtained in a professional capacity confidential and employ professional judgment in sharing this specifyation on a need to know basis.Nurses are expected to protect individuals under their care against drop of privacy by confining their verbal communications only to appropriate personnel settings, and to professional purposes. They are obliged to adhere to practice that limits main course to personal records to appropriate personnel. They must value the promotion of a social as well as economic environment that supports and sustains health and well-being. It includes the involvement in the undercover work of ill effects of the environment on the health of the patient as well as the ill effects of human activities to the natural environment.They must acknowledge that the social environment in which the patient inhabits has an stir on health. Nurses must respect the rights of individuals to make informed choices in relation to their care. They have this responsibility to inform individuals about the care available to them, and the choice to accept or reject that care. If the person is non able to speak for themselves, nurses must ensure the availability of someone to represent them. It is vital to respect the decisions made concerning the individuals care. Standards of care are one measure of quality. Quality nursing care provides care by qualified individuals.Likewise, the individual needs, values, and culture of the patient relative to the provision of nursing care is important to be respected and considered hence it should not be compromised for reasons of ethnicity, gender, spiritual values, disability, age, economic, social or health status, or any other grounds. notice for an individuals needs includes recognition of the individuals place in a family and the community. It is due to this reason that others should be included in the provision of care, most sign ificantly the family members. Respect for needs, beliefs and values includes culturally sensitive care, and the need for comfort, dignity, privacy and alleviation of pain and anxiety as untold as possible.Evidence-based practice (EBP) is a problem solving approach to clinical practice that integrates the conscientious handling of best evidence in combination with a clinicians expertise as well as patient preferences and values to make decisions about the type of care that is provided (Melnyk, 2004). Quality of care outcomes refers to accuracy and relevance demonstrated by the decisions concerning the need for medical and surgical intervention. Evidence of appropriateness in healthcare is necessary to improve health outcomes, balance costs, provide guidance to physicians and meet the need of the new informed health consumer. Appropriateness is unlike effectiveness since the later refers to the degree in which an intervention achieves the objectives set (Muir Gray, 1997). One mea suring rod of appropriateness is that of necessity.As technology and improved methods of care has advanced, access to appropriate interventions should likewise improve. Today some interventions are still limited such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in rural communities and since access to this technology is limited, a criterion of necessity is used to determine who is able to access and how quickly. Therefore although use of MRI may be appropriate in diagnostics, it may be underused. Advancements in technology, interventions and clinical look into will provide updated evidence which in turn would affect ratings of appropriateness (Muir Gray, 1997).Clinical guideline statements are veritable from evidence to assist healthcare practitioners in making appropriate health interventions (Woolf, Grol, Hutchinson, Eccles & Grimshaw, 1999). The clinical guideline may be a general statement or concise instruction on which diagnostic try out to order or how best to treat a specific cond ition. The purpose of clinical guidelines is as a tool for making decisions that will result in more consistent and efficient care. Guidelines are not rules nor are they mandatory. The benefits of clinical guidelines include Improved health outcomes Increased beneficial/appropriate care torso of care Improved patient information Ability to positively influence policy Provide guidance to health care practitionersReferencesAgency of Healthcare Research and Quality. (n.d.). Outcomes research fact sheet. Online.Available http//www.ahcpr.gov/clinic/outfact.htmBrook, R.H. (1994). Appropriateness The next frontier. Online. Availablehttp//www.bmj.com/cgi/ meat/ integral/308/6923/218?ijkey=t7GNbMJu0NIhAFitch, K., Bernstien, S. J., Aguilar, M. D., Burand, B., LaCalle, J. R., Lazaro, P. van het Loo,McDonnell, J., Vader, J. P., & Kahan, J. P. (2001). The RAND/UCLA appropriatenessmethod users manual. Online. Availablehttp//www.rand.org/publications/MR/MR1269?John A. Hartford Foundation. (n.d.) . Online. Available http//www.jhartfound.org/Muir Gray, J.A. (1997). Evidence-based healthcare How to make health policy and managementdecisions, New York Churchill Livingstone.Woolf, S. H., Grol, R., Hutchinson, A., Eccles, M., & Grimshaw, J. (1999). Clinical guidelinesPotential benefits, limitations and harms of clinical guidelines. Online. Availablehttp//www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/318/7182/527?

Machiavelli the Art of War

Machiavelli_0523 09/15/2005 0927 AM THE ONLINE LIBRARY OF LIBERTY familiarity Fund, Inc. 2005 http//oll. libertyfund. org/Home3/index. php NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI, THE ART OF WAR (NEVILLE TRANS. ) (1675) URL of this E-Book http//oll. libertyfund. org/EBooks/Machiavelli_0523. pdf URL of original HTML file http//oll. libertyfund. org/Home3/HTML. php? recordID=0523 ABOUT THE AUTHOR Machiavelli was an Italian Renaissance political philosopher who wrote a famous piece of advice to The Prince on how to get and keep political power.ABOUT THE check A translation by Neville, a leading English republi kitty thinker of the 17th century, of unmatched of the hardly a(prenominal) major works of Machiavelli published in his life age. Machiavelli drew on his receive experiences of the nearly invari com handssurate competef atomic upshot 18 in which the Italian city states were involved, as well as his deep retireledge of ro hu servicemanity eitherowters history. THE EDITION USED The Seven Books on the Art of War, by Niccolo Machiavelli, Citizen and Secretary of Florence, trans. Henry Neville (1675). COPYRIGHT info The text of this edition is in the state-supported domain.FAIR USE STATEMENT This material is put online to further the educational goals of Liberty Fund, Inc. Un sm tot eitheryish former(a)wise stated in the Copy correctly Information section higher up, this material may be affaird freely for educational and academic purposes. It may non be utilise in both bearing for profit. http//oll. libertyfund. org/Home3/EBook. php? recordID=0523 rascal 1 of 106 Machiavelli_0523 09/15/2005 0927 AM _______________________________________________________ TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE com workforcece handst ceremony BOOK SECOND BOOK THIRD BOOK FOURTH BOOK FIFTH BOOK ordinal BOOK SEVENTH BOOK ______________________________________________________ NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI, THE ART OF WAR (NEVILLE TRANS. ) (1675) PREFACE BY NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI CITIZEN AND SECRETARY OF F LORENCE ON THE BOOKS ON THE ART OF WAR TO LORENZO DI FILIPPO STROZZI, A GENTLEMAN OF FLORENCE M each, Lorenzo, pay off held and still pay the opinion, that on that point is nonhing which has less in car park with a nonher, and that is so dis interchangeable, as civilian life is from the army.Whence it is oft epochs observed, if whole hotshot(a)(a) designs to assistance himself of an enlist workforcet in the army, that he soon changes, non exactly his clothes, nonwithstanding as well as his customs, his habits, his voice, and in the presence of any civilian custom, he goes to pieces for I do non remember that any man drive out dress in civilian clothes who deprivations to be quick and ready for any violence nor spate that man father civilian customs and habits, who judges those customs to be effeminate and those habits non conducive to his actions nor does it get togetherm right to him to maintain his ordinary appearance and voice who, with his beard and cur sing, wishings to deliver early(a) hands afr serve which makes much(prenominal)(prenominal) an opinion in these clock to be very true. precisely if they should consider the antediluvian institutions, they would non find egress more than than(prenominal) united, more in conformity, and which, of necessity, should be like to each otherwise as untold as these (civilian and array) for in only the arts that ar completed in a society for the sake of the coarse wide-cut of men, all those institutions created to (make people) live in idolatry of the laws and of God would be in vain, if their defense had non been http//oll. libertyfund. org/Home3/EBook. php? recordID=0523 rogue 2 of 106 Machiavelli_0523 09/15/2005 0927 AM people) live in fear of the laws and of God would be in vain, if their defense had not been pass ond for and which, if well arranged, lead maintain not only these, tho also those that atomic number 18 not well established.And so (on the setback), good institutions without the help of the military be not much differently dis request than the habitation of a superb and regal palace, which, even though adorned with jewels and gold, if it is not roofed over result not labour over anything to protect it from the rain. And, if in any other institutions of a City and of a commonwealth of all timey diligence is engaged in keeping men loyal, quietful, and broad(a) of the fear of God, it is doubled in the military for in what man ought the farming look for large(p)er committedness than in that man who has to promise to die for her? In whom ought thither to be a hugeer cheat of peace, than in him who quite a little only be injured by warf atomic number 18? In whom ought on that point to be a greater fear of God than in him who, undergoing infinite dangers each mean solar daylight, has more need for His aid?If these necessities in forming the life of the spend atomic number 18 well considered, they ar free-base to be pbrocaded by those who gave the laws to the Commanders and by those who were put in charge of military educate, and followed and imitated with all diligence by others. nevertheless be work military institutions result aim be cum completely corrupt and far removed from the antediluvian patriarch shipway, these sinister opinions gain arisen which make the military hated and intercourse with those who tutor them avoided. And I, judging, by what I get under unrivalleds skin seen and read, that it is not impossible to counterweightore its antique slipway and redress several(prenominal) form of past virtue to it, take a shit decided not to let this leisure time of mine pass without doing something, to write what I know of the art of war, to the satisfaction of those who be caramels of the ancient workings.And although it demands courage to treat of those exits of which others stick out do a profession, n star the less, I do not suppose that it is a mistake to occupy a position with words, which may, with greater presumption, dupe been occupied with deeds for the errors which I should make in writing piece of tail be corrected without injury to any superstar, provided those which be make with deeds cannot be found out except by the ruin of the Commanders. You, Lorenzo, pass on be baffle consider the quality of these efforts of mine, and ordain pose got in your judgement of them that censure or p resurrect which give appear to you to be merited. I send you these, as much as to show myself grateful for all the benefits I make up received from you, although I impart not include in them the (review) of this work of mine, as well as also, because cosmos accustomed to honor similar works of those who shine because of their nobility, wealth, genius, and liberality, I know you do not corroborate umteen a(prenominal) equals in wealth and nobility, few in ingenuity, and no unmatched in liberality. FIRST BOOKAs I trust that it is possible for one to praise, without concern, any man after he is dead since every reason and supervision for adulation is lacking, I am not apprehensive in praising our proclaim Cosimo Ruccelai, whose name is never remembered by me without tears, as I give recognized in him those parts which can be desired in a good friend among friends and in a citizen of his country. For I do not know what pertained to him more than to spend himself willingly, not excepting that courage of his, for his friends, and I do not know of any enterprise that dismayed him when he knew it was for the good of his country. And I confess freely not to http//oll. libertyfund. org/Home3/EBook. php? recordID=0523 Page 3 of 106 Machiavelli_0523 09/15/2005 0927 AM hat dismayed him when he knew it was for the good of his country. And I confess freely not to puzzle met among so many men whom I have known and worked with, a man in whom in that location was a mind more fired with great and magnificent things. Nor does one grieve with the friends of another of his death, except for his having been born to die new unhonored inside his own home, without having been able to benefit anyone with that mind of his, for one would know that no one could speak of him, except (to declare) that a good friend had died. It does not remain for us, however, or for anyone else who, like us, knew him, to be able because of this to keep the confidence (since deeds do not seem to) to his laudable qualities.It is true however, that prospect was not so inimical to him that it did not leave some brief memory of the dexterity of his genius, as was demonstrated by some of his writings and compositions of amorous verses, in which (as he was not in lamb) he (employed as an) exercise in locate not to use his time uselessly in his juvenile historic period, in order that fortune might lead him to broad(prenominal)er thoughts. Here, it can be clearly comprehended, that if his objective was exercise, how very happ ily he described his ideas, and how much he was honored in his poetry. Fortune, however, having deprived us of the use of so great a friend, it appears to me it is not possible to find any other cave in indemnity than for us to set about to benefit from his memory, and recover from it any matter that was either keenly observed or wisely discussed.And as there is secret code of his more recent than the discussions which the Lord Fabrizio Colonna had with him in his gardens, where matters pertaining to war were discussed at length by that Lord, with (questions) keenly and judiciously contended by Cosimo, it seemed proper to me having been indue with other friends of ours, to recall him to memory, so that reading it, the friends of Cosimo who met there will renew in their minds the memory of his virtue, and another part grieving for not having been there, will ingest in part of many things discussed wisely by a nearly sagacious man multipurpose not only to the military way of life, until now to the civilian as well. I will relate, therefore, how Fabrizio Colonna, when he returned from Lombardy where he had fought a long time gloriously for the Catholic poof, decided to pass through Florence to rest several days in that City in order to visit His Excellency the Duke, and see once a sort out several gentlemen with whom he had been familiar in the past.Whence it appeared proper to Cosimo to invite him to a banquet in his gardens, not so much to show his generosity as to have reason to talk to him at length, and to get and understand several things from him, according as one can expect to from much(prenominal) a man, for it appeared to him to springiness him an probability to spend a day discussing such matters as would satisfy his mind. Fabrizio, therefore, came as planned, and was received by Cosimo together with several other loyal friends of his, among whom were Zanobi Buondelmonti, Battista Della Palla, and Luigi Alamanni, young men most arde nt in the kindred studies and loved by him, whose good qualities, because they were also praised daily by himself, we will omit. Fabrizio, therefore, was honored according to the propagation and the place, with all the highest honors they could give him.As soon as the convivial pleasures were past and the table cleared and every recording of feasting absolute, which, in the presence of great men and those who have their minds turned to honorable thoughts is soon accomplished, and because the day was long and the heat intense, Cosimo, in order to satisfy their desire go against, judged it would be well to take the opportunity to escape the heat by leading them to the more secret and shadowy part of his garden when they arrived there and chairs brought out, some sat on the grass which was most fresh in the http//oll. libertyfund. org/Home3/EBook. php? recordID=0523 Page 4 of 106 Machiavelli_0523 09/15/2005 0927 AM hey arrived there and chairs brought out, some sat on the grass wh ich was most fresh in the place, some sat on chairs placed in those parts under the shadow of very high trees Fabrizio praised the place as most delightful, and looking peculiarly at the trees, he did not recognize one of them, and looked puzzled. Cosimo, becoming aware of this say Perhaps you have no knowledge of some of these trees, entirely do not wonder about them, because here are some which were more widely known by the ancients than are those commonly seen right away. And giving him the name of some and telling him that Bernardo, his grandfather, had worked hard in their culture, Fabrizio replied I was thought that it was what you tell I was, and this place and this study make me remember several Princes of the realm, who delighted in their ancient culture and the shadow they cast.And stopping speaking of this, and somewhat upon himself as though in suspense, he added If I did not think I would offend you, I would give you my opinion entirely I do not believe in talki ng and discussing things with friends in this manner that I insult them. How much better would they have done (it is express with peace to everyone) to seek to imitate the ancients in the strong and un kept things, not in the soft and delicate, and in the things they did under the sun, not in the shadows, to adopt the honest and perfect ways of antiquity, not the false and corrupt for while these invests were pleasing to my papists, my country (without them) was ruined. To which Cosimo replied ( barely to avoid the necessity of having to repeat so many multiplication who is speaking, and what the other adds, only the names of those speaking will be noted, without repeating the others).Cosimo, therefore, said You have opened the way for a discussion which I desired, and I pray you to speak without regard, for I will question you without regard and if, in questioning or in replying, I accuse or explain anyone, it will not be for accusing or excusing, but to understand the truth from you. FABRIZIO And I will be much content to tell you what I know of all that you direct me whether it be true or not, I will leave to your judgement. And I will be grateful if you ask me, for I am about to learn as much from what you ask me, as you will from me replying to you, because many times a wise questioner causes one to consider many things and understand many others which, without having been asked, would never have been understood.COSIMO I urgency to return to what you first were saying, that my grandfather and those of yours had more wisely imitated the ancients in rugged things than in delicate ones, and I want to excuse my side because I will let you excuse the other (your side). I do not believe that in your time there was a man who disliked living as softly as he, and that he was so much a lover of that rugged life which you praise none the less he recognized he could not somatic exercise it in his personal life, nor in that of his sons, having been born in s o corrupted an age, where anyone who wanted to depart from the common usage would be deformed and despised by everyone. For if anyone in a naked state should slam dance upon the sand under the highest sun, or upon the snow in the most icy months of winter, as did Diogenes, he would be considered mad.If anyone (like the Spartan) should raise his children on a farm, make them sleep in the open, go with head and feet bare, bathe in cold water in order to harden them to endure vicissitudes, so that they then might love life less and fear death less, he would be praised by few and followed by none. So that dismayed at these ways of living, he presendly leaves the ways of the ancients, and in imitating antiquity, does only that which he can with subaltern wonderment. http//oll. libertyfund. org/Home3/EBook. php? recordID=0523 Page 5 of 106 Machiavelli_0523 09/15/2005 0927 AM ancients, and in imitating antiquity, does only that which he can with elfin wonderment. FABRIZIO You have excus ed him strongly in this part, and certainly you speak the truth but I did not speak so much of these rugged ays of living, as of those other more human ways which have a greater conformity to the ways of living today, which I do not believe should have been difficult to introduce by one who is numbered among the Princes of a City. I will never let go my examples of my Romans. If their way of living should be examined, and the institutions in their Republic, there will be observed in her many things not impossible to introduce in a Society where there that might be something of good. COSIMO What are those things similar to the ancients that you would introduce? FABRIZIO To honor and reward virtu, not to have contempt for poverty, to esteem the modes and orders of military discipline, to constrain citizens to love one another, to live without factions, to esteem less the private than the public good, and other such things which could easy be added in these times.It is not difficul t to persuade (people) to these ways, when one considers these at length and approaches them in the usual manner, for the truth will appear in such (examinations) that every common talent is undefendable of undertaking them. Anyone can arrange these things (for example), one plants trees under the shadow of which he lives more happily and happily than if he had not (planted them). COSIMO I do not want to reply to anything of what you have spoken, but I do want leave to give a judgment on these, which can be easily judged, and I shall address myself to you who accuse those who in serious and important actions are not imitators of the ancients, thinking that in this way I can more easily carry out my intentions.I should want, therefore, to know from you whence it arises that, on the one hand you condemn those who do not imitate the ancients in their actions, on the other hand, in matters of war which is your profession and in which you are judged to be keen, it is not observed that you have employed any of the ancient methods, or those which have some similarity. FABRIZIO You have get along to the point where I expected you to, for what I said did not merit any other question, nor did I wish for any other. And although I am able to save myself with a simple excuse, none the less I want, for your greater satisfaction and mine, since the temper (weather) allows it, to enter into a much longer discussion. Men who want to do something, ought first to prepare themselves with all industry, in order when the opportunity is seen to be prepared to achieve that which they have proposed. And whenever the preparations are pioneern cautiously, unknown to anyone, no none can be ccused of negligence unless he is first discovered by the occasion in which if it is not then successful, it is seen that either he has not sufficiently prepared himself, or that he has not in some part given up thought to it. And as the opportunity has not come to me to be able to show the prepa rations I would make to bring the military to your ancient organization, and it I have not done so, I cannot be blamed either by you or by others. I believe this excuse is enough to respond to your accusation. COSIMO It would be enough if I was certain that the opportunity did not testify itself. http//oll. libertyfund. org/Home3/EBook. php? recordID=0523 Page 6 of 106 Machiavelli_0523 09/15/2005 0927 AMFABRIZIO But because I know you could discredit whether this opportunity had come about or not, I want to discuss at length if you will listen to me with patience which preparations are needful to be made first, what occasion needs to arise, what difficulty impedes the preparations from becoming beneficial and the occasion from arriving, and that this is which appears a paradox most difficult and most easy to do. COSIMO You cannot do anything more pleasing for me and for the others than this. But if it is not dreaded for you to speak, it will never be painful for us to listen. Bu t at this discussion may be long, I want help from these, my friends, and with your permission, and they and I pray you one thing, that you do not become irritated if we sometimes interrupt you with some opportune question.FABRIZIO I am most content that you, Cosimo, with these other young people here, should question me, for I believe that young men will become more familiar with military matters, and will more easily understand what I have to say. The others, whose hair (head) is white and whose derivation is icy, in part are enemies of war and in part incorrigible, as those who believe that the times and not the evil ways constrain men to live in such a fashion. So ask anything of me, with assurance and without regard I desire this, as much because it will afford me a little rest, as because it will give me pleasure not to leave any doubts in your minds. I want to begin from your words, where you said to me that in war which is my profession I have not employed any of the ancie nt methods.Upon this I say, that this beence a profession by which men of every time were not able to live honestly, it cannot be employed as a profession except by a Republic or a male monarchdom and both of these, if well established, will never allow any of their citizens or put forwards to employ it as a profession for he who practices it will never be judged to be good, as to gain some usefulness from it at any time he must be rapacious, deceitful, violent, and have many qualities, which of necessity, do not make him good nor can men who employ this as a profession, the great as well as the least, be made otherwise, for this profession does not provide for them in peace.Whence they are obliged, either to hope that there will be no peace or to gain so much for themselves in times of war, that they can provide for themselves in times of peace. And wherever one of these both thoughts exists, it does not occur in a good man for, from the desire to provide for oneself in every circumstance, robberies, violence and assassinations result, which such soldiers do to friends as well as to enemies and from not desiring peace, there arises those deceptions which chiefs invest upon those whom they lead, because war hardens them and even if peace occurs frequently, it happens that the leaders, macrocosm deprived of their stipends and of their licentious mode of living, raise a pin tumbler of piracy, and without any mercy sack a province.Do you not have within the memory of events of your time, many soldiers in Italy, finding themselves without employment because of the termination of wars, gathered themselves into very troublesome gangs, calling themselves companies, and went about levying good word on the towns and sacking the country, without there being any remedy able to be applied? Have you not read how the Carthaginian soldiers, when the first war they engaged in with the Romans under Matus and Spendius was ended, tumultuously chose two leaders, and r emunerationd a more dangerous war against the Carthaginians than that which they had just concluded with the http//oll. libertyfund. org/Home3/EBook. php? recordID=0523 Page 7 of 106 Machiavelli_0523 09/15/2005 0927 AM Romans?And in the time of our fathers, Francesco Sforza, in order to be able to live honorably (comfortably) in times of peace, not only deceived the Milanese, in whose pay he was, but took away their liberty and became their Prince. All the other soldiers of Italy, who have employed the military as their particular profession, have been like this man and if, through their malignity, they have not become Dukes of Milan, so much more do they merit to be censured for without such a return if their lives were to be examined, they all have the same cares. Sforza, father of Francesco, throttle Queen Giovanna to throw herself into the ordnance of the King of Aragon, having abandoned her suddenly, and left her disarmed amid her enemies, only in order to satisfy his ambitio n of either levying tribute or taking the Kingdom.Braccio, with the same industry, sought to occupy the Kingdom of Naples, and would have ensueed, had he not been routed and killed at Aquilla. Such evils do not result from anything else other than the existence of men who employ the practice of shirking as their own profession. Do you not have a proverb which strengthens my argument, which says War makes robbers, and peace hangs them? For those who do not know how to live by another practice, and not finding any one who will support them in that, and not having so much virtu that they know how to come and live together honorably, are compel by necessity to roam the streets, and justice is forced to extinguish them.COSIMO You have made me turn this profession (art) of soldiering back almost to nothing, and I had supposed it to be the most delicate and most honorable of any so that if you do not clarify this better, I will not be slaked for if it is as you say, I do not know whenc e arises the glory of Caesar, Pompey, Scipio, Marcellus, and of so many Roman lords who are celebrated for their fame as the Gods. FABRIZIO I have not yet finished discussing all that I proposed, which included two things the one, that a good man was not able to undertake this practice because of his profession the other, that a well established Republic or Kingdom would never reserve its yields or citizens to employ it for their profession. Concerning the first, I have spoken as much as has occurred to e it system for me to talk of the turn, where I shall reply to this subsist question of yours, and I say that Pompey and Caesar, and almost all those Captains who were in Rome after the last Carthaginian war, acquired fame as valiant men, not as good men but those who had lived in the beginning them acquired glory as valiant and good men which results from the fact that these latter did not take up the practice of war as their profession and those whom I named first as those wh o employed it as their profession. And while the Republic lived immaculately, no great citizen ever presumed by representation of such a practice to enrich himself during (periods of) peace by breaking laws, despoiling the provinces, usurping and tyrannizing the country, and imposing himself in every way nor did anyone of the lowest fortune think of violating the sacred agreement, adhere himself to any private individual, not fearing the Senate, or to perform any disgraceful act of tyranny in order to live at all times by the profession of war.But those who were Captains, being content with the triumph, returned with a desire for the private life and those who were members (of the army) returned with a desire to localise down the blazonry they had taken up and everyone returned to the art (trade or profession) by which they ordinarily lived nor was there ever anyone who hoped to provide for himself by plunder and by means of these arts. A clear and evident example of this as it applies to great citizens can be found in the http//oll. libertyfund. org/Home3/EBook. php? recordID=0523 Page 8 of 106 Machiavelli_0523 09/15/2005 0927 AM arts. A clear and evident example of this as it applies to great citizens can be found in the Regent Attilio, who, when he was captain of the Roman armies in Africa, and having almost defeated the Carthaginians, asked the Senate for permission to return to his contribute to look after his f arm which were being spoiled by his laborers.Whence it is clearer than the sun, that if that man had beneficial war as his profession, and by means of it thought to obtain some advantage for himself, having so many provinces which (he could) plunder, he would not have asked permission to return to take care of his arenas, as each day he could have obtained more than the value of all his possessions. But as these good men, who do not practice war as their profession, do not expect to gain anything from it except hard work, danger, and glory, as soon as they are sufficiently glorious, desire to return to their homes and live from the practice of their own profession. As to men of lower term and gregarious soldiers, it is also true that every one voluntarily withdrew from such a practice, for when he was not fighting would have desired to fight, but when he was fighting wanted to be dismissed.Which illustrates the many ways, and especially in seeing that it was among the first privileges, that the Roman people gave to one of its Citizens, that he should not be constrained unwillingly to fight. Rome, therefore, while she was well targetd which it was up to the time of the Gracchi did not have one soldier who had to take up this practice as a profession, and therefore had few bad ones, and these were severely punished. A well tell City, therefore, ought to desire that this training for war ought to be employed in times of peace as an exercise, and in times of war as a necessity and for glory, and allow the public only t o use it as a profession, as Rome did.And any citizen who has other aims in (using) such exercises is not good, and any City which dominates itself otherwise, is not well ordered. COSIMO I am very much content and satisfied with what you have said up to now, and this conclusion which you have made pleases me greatly and I believe it will be true when expected from a Republic, but as to Kings, I do not yet know why I should believe that a King would not want particularly to have around him those who take up such a practice as their profession. FABRIZIO A well ordered Kingdom ought so much the more avoid such artifices, for these only are the things which corrupt the King and all the Ministers in a Tyranny.And do not, on the other side, tell me of some present Kingdom, for I will not admit them to be all well ordered Kingdoms for Kingdoms that are well ordered do not give absolute (power to) Rule to their Kings, except in the armies, for only there is a quick decision undeniable, an d, therefore, he who (rules) there must have this unique power in other matters, he cannot do anything without direction, and those who counsel him have to fear those whom he may have near him who, in times of peace, desire war because they are unable to live without it. But I want to remain a little longer on this prevail over, and look for a Kingdom totally good, but similar to those that exist today, where those who take up the profession of war for themselves still ought to be feared by the King, for the sinews of armies without any doubt are the understructure.So that if a King does not organize himself in such a way that his infantry in time of peace are content to return to their homes and live from the practice of their own professions, it must happen of necessity that he will be ruined for there is not to be found a more dangerous infantry than that which is composed of those who make the waging of war their profession for you are http//oll. libertyfund. org/Home3/EBook . php? recordID=0523 Page 9 of 106 Machiavelli_0523 09/15/2005 0927 AM that which is composed of those who make the waging of war their profession for you are forced to make war unceasingly, or pay them unendingly, or to risk the danger that they take away the Kingdom from you. To make war always is not possible (and) one cannot pay always and, hence, that danger is track of losing the State.My Romans as I have said, as long as they were wise and good, never abideted that their citizens should take up this practice as their profession, notwithstanding that they were able to raise them at all times, for they made war at all times but in order to avoid the harm which this continuous practice of theirs could do to them, since the times did not change, they changed the men, and kept turning men over in their legions so that every fifteen years they always completely re-manned them and therefore they desired men in the flower of their age, which is from eighteen to thirty quintet y ears, during which time their legs, their hands, and their eyes, worked together, nor did they expect that their strength should decrease in them, or that malice should grow in them, as they did in corrupt times. Ottavianus first, and then Tiberius, thinking more of their own power than the public usefulness, in order to rule over the Roman people more easily, begun to disarm them and to keep the same armies continually at the frontiers of the empire.And because they did not think it sufficient to hold the Roman People and the Senate in check, they instituted an army called the Praetorian (Guard), which was kept near the walls of Rome in a fort adjacent to that City. And as they now begun freely to permit men assigned to the army to practice military matters as their profession, there soon resulted that these men became insolent, and they became redoubtable to the Senate and damaging to the Emperor. Whence there resulted that many men were killed because of their insolence, for they gave the Empire and took it away from anyone they wished, and it often occurred that at one time there were many Emperors created by the several armies. From which state of affairs proceeded first the division of the Empire and finally its ruin.Kings ought, therefore, if they want to live securely, have their infantry composed of men, who, when it is necessary for him to wage war, will willingly go forth to it for love of him, and afterwards when peace comes, more willingly return to their homes which will always happen if he selects men who know how to live by a profession other than this. And frankincense he ought to desire, with the coming of peace, that his Princes return to governing their people, gentlemen to the cultivation of their possessions, and the infantry to their particular arts (trades or professions) and everyone of these will willingly make war in order to have peace, and will not seek to impress the peace to have war. COSIMO Truly, this reasoning of yours appear s to me well considered none the less, as it is almost contrary to what I have thought up to now, my mind is not yet purged of every doubt.For I see many Lords and Gentlemen who provide for themselves in times of peace through the training for war, as do your equals who obtain provisions from Princes and the Community. I also see almost all the men at munition remaining in the garrisons of the city and of the fortresses. So that it appears to me that there is a long time of peace for everyone. FABRIZIO I do not believe that you believe this, that everyone has a place in time of peace for other reasons can be cited for their being stationed there, and the low-toned number of people who remain in the places mentioned by you will answer your question. What is the proportion http//oll. libertyfund. org/Home3/EBook. php? recordID=0523 Page 10 of 106 Machiavelli_0523 09/15/2005 0927 AM of infantry needed to be employed in time of war to that in peace? or while the fortresses and the cit y are garrisoned in times of peace, they are much more garrisoned in times of war to this should be added the soldiers kept in the field who are a great number, but all of whom are released in time of peace. And concerning the garrisons of States, who are a small number, Pope Julius and you have shown how much they are to be feared who do not know any other profession than war, as you have taken them out of your garrisons because of their insolence, and placed the Swiss there, who are born and raised under the laws and are elect by the community in an honest election so do not say further that in peace there is a place for every man.As to the men at arms continued in their enlistment in peace time, the answer appears more difficult. none the less, whoever considers everything well, will easily find the answer, for this thing of keeping on the men at arms is a corrupt thing and not good. The reason is this as there are men who do not have any art (trade or profession), a thousand evi ls will arise every day in those States where they exist, and especially so if they were to be joined by a great number of companions but as they are few, and unable by themselves to constitute an army, they therefore, cannot do any serious damage. None the less, they have done so many times, as I said of Francesco and of Sforza, his father, and of Braccio of Perugia.So I do not sanction of this custom of keeping men at arms, both because it is corrupt and because it can cause great evils. COSIMO Would you do without them? , or if you keep them, how would you do so? FABRIZIO By means of an regularisation, not like those of the King of France, because they are as dangerous and insolent as ours, but like those of the ancients, who created horsemen (cavalry) from their subjects, and in times of peace sent them back to their homes to live from the practice of their own profession, as I shall discuss at length in the beginning I finish this discussion. So, if this part of the army can n ow live by such a practice even when there is peace, it stems from a corrupt order.As to the provisions that are reserved for me and the other leaders, I say to you that this likewise is a most corrupt order, for a wise Republic ought not to give them to anyone, preferably it ought to employ its citizens as leaders in war, and in time of peace desire that they return to their professions. Thus also, a wise King ought not to give (provisions) to them, or if he does give them, the reasons ought to be either as a reward for some excellent act, or in order to avail himself of such a man in peace as well as in war. And because you have mentioned me, I want the example to include me, and I say I have never practiced war as a profession, for my profession is to govern my subjects, and defend them, and in order to defend them, I must love peace but know how to make war and my King does not reward and esteem me so much for what I know of war, as because I know also how to counsel him in pea ce.Any King ought not, therefore, to want to have next to him anyone who is not thusly constituted, if he is wise and wants to govern prudently for if he has around him either too many lovers of peace or too many lovers of war, they will cause him to err. I cannot, in this first discussion of mine and according to my suggestion, say otherwise, and if this is not enough for you, you must seek one which satisfies you better. You can begin to recognize how much difficulty there is in bringing the ancient methods into modem wars, and what preparations a wise man must make, and what opportunities he can hope for to put them into execution. But little by little you will know these things better if the discussion on bringing any http//oll. libertyfund. org/Home3/EBook. php? recordID=0523 Page 11 of 106 Machiavelli_0523 09/15/2005 0927 AM execution.But little by little you will know these things better if the discussion on bringing any part of the ancient institutions to the present order o f things does not weary you. COSIMO If we first desired to hear your discussion of these matters, truly what you have said up to now redoubles that desire. We thank you, therefore, for what we have had and ask you for the rest. FABRIZIO Since this is your pleasure, I want to begin to treat of this matter from the beginning being able in that way to demonstrate it more fully, so that it may be better understood. The aim of those who want to make war is to be able to combat in the field with every (kind) of rival, and to be able to win the engagement. To want to do this, they must raise an army.In raising an army, it is necessary to find men, arm them, organize them, train them in small and large (battle) orders, lodge them, and expose them to the enemy afterwards, either at a standstill or while marching. All the industry of war in the field is placed in these things, which are the more necessary and honored (in the waging of war). And if one does well in offering battle to the enem y, all the other errors he may make in the conduct of the war are supportable but if he lacks this organization, even though he be valiant in other particulars, he will never carry on a war to victory (and honor). For, as one engagement that you win cancels out every other bad action of yours, so likewise, when you fall back one, all the things you have done well before become useless.Since it is necessary, therefore, first to find men, you must come to the Deletto (Draft) of them, as thus the ancients called it, and which we call Scelta (Selection) but in order to call it by a more honored name, I want us to preserve the name of Deletto. Those who have drawn up regulations for war want men to be elect from temperate countries as they have spirit and are prudent for warm countries give rise to men who are prudent but not spirited, and cold (countries) to men who are spirited but not prudent. This regulation is drawn up well for one who is the Prince of all the humans, and is theref ore permitted to draw men from those places that appear best to him but lacking(p) to draw up a regulation that anyone can use, one must say that every Republic and every Kingdom ought to take soldiers from their own country, whether it is hot, cold, or temperate.For, from ancient examples, it is seen that in every country, good soldiers are made by training because where nature is lacking, industry supplies it, which, in this case, is worth more than nature And selecting them from another place cannot be called Deletto, because Deletto means to say to take the best of a province, and to have the power to select as well those who do not want to fight as those who do want to. This Deletto therefore, cannot be made unless the places are subject to you for you cannot take whoever you want in the countries that are not yours, but you need to take those who want to come. COSIMO And of those who want to come, it can even be said, that they turn and leave you, and because of this, it can then be called a Deletto. FABRIZIO In a certain way, you say what is true but consider the defects that such as Deletto has in itself, for often it happens that it is not a Deletto.The first thing (to consider), is that those who are not your subjects and do not willingly want to fight, are not of the best, kinda they are of the worst of a province for if nay are troublesome, idle, without restraint, without religion, subject to the rule of the father, blasphemous, gamblers, and in every way http//oll. libertyfund. org/Home3/EBook. php? recordID=0523 Page 12 of 106 Machiavelli_0523 09/15/2005 0927 AM without religion, subject to the rule of the father, blasphemous, gamblers, and in every way badly brought up, they are those who want to fight, (and) these habits cannot be more contrary to a true and good military life.When there are so many of such men offered to you that they exceed the number you had designated, you can select them but if the material is bad, it is impossible for the Deletto to be good but many times it happens that they are not so many as (are needed) to fill the number you require so that being forced to take them all, it results that it can no longer be called the making of a Deletto, but in enlisting of infantry. The armies of Italy and other places are raised today with these evils, except in Germany, where no one is enlisted by rule of the Prince, but according to the wishes of those who want to fight. Think, therefore, what methods of those ancients can now be introduced in an army of men put together by similar means. COSIMO What means should be taken therefore? FABRIZIO What I have just said select them from your own subjects, and with the authority of the Prince. COSIMO Would you introduce any ancient form in those thus selected?FABRIZIO You know well it would be so if it is a Principality, he who should look out over should be their Prince or an ordinary Lord or if it is a Republic, a citizen who for the time should be Captain otherwise it is difficult to do the thing well. COSIMO Why? FABRIZIO I will tell you in time for now, I want this to suffice for you, that it cannot be done well in any other way. COSIMO If you have, therefore, to make ibis Deletto in your country, whence do you judge it better to draw them, from the City or the Countryside? FABRIZIO Those who have scripted of this all agree that it is better to select them from the Countryside, as they are men accustomed to discomfort, brought up on hard work, accustomed to be in the sun and avoid the shade, know how to handle the sword, dig a ditch, carry a load, and are without cunning or malice.But on this subject, my opinion would be, that as soldiers are of two kinds, afoot and on horseback, that those afoot be selected from the Countryside, and those on horseback from the City. COSIMO Of what age would you draw them? FABRIZIO If I had to raise an ( completely) new army, I would draw them from seventeen to forty years of age if the army alread y exists and I had to replenish it, at seventeen years of age always. COSIMO I do not understand this trait well. FABRIZIO I will tell you if I should have to organize an army where there is none, it would be necessary to select all those men who were more capable, as long as they were of military http//oll. libertyfund. org/Home3/EBook. php? recordID=0523 Page 13 of 106 Machiavelli_0523 09/15/2005 0927 AM e necessary to select all those men who were more capable, as long as they were of military age, in order to instruct them as I would tell them but if I should have to make the Deletto in places where the army was (already) organized, in order to supplement it, I would take those of seventeen years of age, because the others having been taken for some time would have been selected and instructed. COSIMO Therefore you would want to make an ordinance similar to that which exists in our countries. FABRIZIO You say well it is true that I would arm them, captain them, train them, and organize them, in a way which I do not know whether or not you have organized them similarly. COSIMO Therefore you praise the ordinance? FABRIZIO Why would you want me to condemn it? COSIMO Because many wise men have censured it.FABRIZIO You say something contrary, when you say a wise man censured the ordinance for he can be held a wise man and to have censured them wrongly. COSIMO The wrong conclusion that he has made will always cause us to have such a opinion. FABRIZIO Watch out that the defect is not yours, but his as that which you recognized before this discussion furnishes proof. COSIMO You do a most gracious thing. But I want to tell you that you should be able to justify yourself better in that of which those men are accused. These men say thusly either that it is useless and our trusting in it will cause us to put up the State or it is of virtue, and he who governs through it can easily deprive her of it.They cite the Romans, who by their own arms lost their liberty They cite the Venetians and the King of France, of whom they say that the former, in order not to follow one of its Citizens employed the arms of others, and the King disarmed his People so as to be able to command them more easily. But they fear the uselessness of this much more for which uselessness they cite two spark advance reasons the one, because they are inexpert the other, for having to fight by force because they say that they never learn anything from great men, and nothing good is ever done by force. FABRIZIO All the reasons that you mention are from men who are not far sighted, as I shall clearly show. And first, as to the uselessness, I say to you that no army is of more use than your own, nor can an army of your own be organized except in this way.And as there is no debating over this, which all the examples of ancient history does for us, I do not want to stick out time over it. And because they cite inexperience and force, I say as it is true that inept experience give s rise to little spirit (enthusiasm) and force makes for discontent but experience and enthusiasm gains for themselves the means for arming, training, and organizing them, as you will see in the first part of this discussion. But as to force, you must understand that as men are brought to the army by commandment of the Prince, they have to come, whether it is http//oll. libertyfund. org/Home3/EBook. php? recordID=0523 Page 14 of 106 Machiavelli_0523 09/15/2005 0927 AM en are brought to the army by commandment of the Prince, they have to come, whether it is entirely by force or entirely voluntarily for if it were entirely from desire, there would not be a Deletto as only a few of them would go so also, the (going) entirely by force would produce bad results therefore, a middle way ought to be taken where neither the entirely forced or entirely voluntarily (means are used), but they should come, drawn by the regard they have for the Prince, where they are more afraid of of his anger t hen the flying punishment and it will always happen that there will be a compulsion involved with willingness, from which that discontent cannot arise which causes bad effects. Yet I do not claim that an army thus constituted cannot be defeated for many times the Roman armies were overcome, and the army of Hannibal was defeated so that it can be seen that no army can be so organized that a promise can be given that it cannot be routed. These wise men of yours, therefore, ought not measure this uselessness from having lost one time, but to believe that just as they can lose, so too they can win and remedy the cause of the defeat.And if they should look into this, they will find that it would not have happened because of a defect in the means, but of the organization which was not sufficiently perfect. And, as I have said, they ought to provide for you, not by censuring the organization, but by correcting it as to how this ought to be done, you will come to know little by little. As to being apprehensive that such organization will not deprive you of the State by one who makes himself a leader, I reply, that the arms carried by his citizens or subjects, given to them by laws and ordinances, never do him harm, but rather are always of some usefulness, and preserve the City uncorrupted for a longer time by means of these (arms), than without (them).Rome remained free four hundred years while armed Sparta eight hundred umpteen other Cities have been dis-armed, and have been free less than forty years for Cities have need of arms, and if they do not have arms of their own, they hire them from foreigners, and the arms of foreigners more readily do harm to the public good than their own for they are easier to corrupt, and a citizen who becomes mightily can more readily avail himself, and can also manage the people more readily as he has to oppress men who are disarmed. In addition to this, a City ought to fear two enemies more than one. One which avails itself of foreigners immediately has to fear not only its citizens, but the foreigners that it enlists and, remembering what I told you a short while ago of Francesco Sforza, (you will see that) that fear ought to exist. One which employs its own arms, has not other fear except of its own Citizens.But of all the reasons which can be given, I want this one to serve me, that no one ever established any Republic or Kingdom who did not think that it should be defended by those who lived there with arms and if the Venetians had been as wise in this as in their other institutions, they would have created a new world Kingdom but who so much more merit censure, because they had been the first who were armed by their founders. And not having dominion on land, they armed themselves on the sea, where they waged war with virtu, and with arms in hand enlarged their country. But when the time came when they had to wage war on land to defend Venice and where they ought to have sent their own citizens to fi ght (on land), they enlisted as their captain (a foreigner), the Marquis of Mantua. This was the sinister course which prevented them from rising to the skies and expanding.And they did this in the belief that, as they knew how to wage war at sea, they should not trust themselves in waging it on land which was an inexpedient belief (distrust), because a Sea captain, who is accustomed to http//oll. libertyfund. org/Home3/EBook. php? recordID=0523 Page 15 of 106 Machiavelli_0523 09/15/2005 0927 AM on land which was an unwise belief (distrust), because a Sea captain, who is accustomed to combat with winds, water, and men, could more easily become a Captain on land where the combat is with men only, than a land Captain become a sea one. And my Romans, knowing how to combat on land and not on the sea, when the war broke out with the Carthaginians who were powerful on the sea, did not enlist Greeks or Spaniards experienced at sea, but imposed that change on those citizens they sent (to fi ght) on land, and they won.If they did this in order that one of their citizens should not become Tyrant, it was a fear that was given little consideration for, in addition to the other reasons mentioned a short while ago concerning such a proposal, if a citizen (skilled) in (the use of) arms at sea had never been made a Tyrant in a City situated in the sea, so much less would he be able to do this if he were (skilled) in (the use of arms) on land. And, because of this, they ought to have seen that arms in the hands of their own citizens could not create Tyrants, but the evil institutions of a Government are those which cause a City to be tyrannized and, as they had a good Government, did not have to fear arms of their own citizens. They took an imprudent course, therefore, which was the cause of their being deprived of much glory and happiness. As to the error which the King of France makes in not having his eople disciplined to war, from what has been cited from examples previousl y mentioned, there is no one devoid of some particular love life of theirs who does not judge this defect to be in the Republic, and that this negligence alone is what makes it weak. But I have made too great a digression and have gotten away from my subject yet I have done this to answer you and to show you, that no reliance can be had on arms other than ones own, and ones own arms cannot be established otherwise than by way of an ordinance, nor can forms of armies be introduced in any place, nor military discipline instituted. If you have read the arrangements which the first Kings made in Rome, and most especially of Servius Tullus, you will find that the institution of classes is none other than an arrangement to be able readily to put together an army for the defense of that City.But turning to our Deletto, I say again, that having to replenish an established (old) organization, I would take the seventeen year olds, but having to create a new one, I would take them of every a ge between seventeen and forty in order to avail myself of them quickly. COSIMO Would you make a distinction of opinion of what profession (art) you would choose them from? FABRIZIO These writers do so, for they do not want that bird hunters, fishermen, cooks, procurers, and anyone who makes amusement his calling should be taken, but they want that, in addition to tillers of the soil, smiths and blacksmiths, carpenters, butchers, hunters, and such like, should be taken.But I would make little difference in conjecturing from his calling how good the man may be, but how much I can use him with the greatest usefulness. And for this reason, the peasants, who are accustomed to working the land, are more useful than anyone else, for of all the professions (arts), this one is used more than any other in the army After this, are the forgers (smiths), carpenters, blacksmiths, shoemakers of whom it is useful to have many, for their skills succeed in many things, as they are a very good thing for a soldier to have, from whom you draw double service. COSIMO How are those who are or are not suitable to fight chosen? http//oll. libertyfund. org/Home3/EBook. php? recordID=0523 Page 16 of 106Machiavelli_0523 09/15/2005 0927 AM FABRIZIO I want to talk of the manner of selecting a new organization in order to make it after wards into an army which yet also check in the discussion of the natural selection that should be made in re-manning an old (established) organization. I say, therefore, that how good the man is that you have to select as a soldier is recognized either from his experience, shown by some excellent deeds of his, or by conjecture. The proof of virtu cannot be found in men who are newly selected, and who never before have been selected and of the former, few or none are found in an organization which is newly established.It is necessary, therefore, lacking experience to have recourse to conjecture, which is derived from their age, profession, and physical appe arance. The first two have been discussed it remains to talk of the trinity. And yet I say that some have wanted that the soldier be big, among whom was Pyrrhus Some others have chosen them only from the strength of the body, as Caesar did which strength of body is conjectured from the composition of the members and the gracefulness of aspect. And yet some of those who write say that he should have lively and merry eyes, a nervy neck, a large breast, muscular arms, long fingers, a small stomach, round hips, sleek legs and feet which parts usually mother a man strong and agile, which are the two things sought above everything else in a soldier.He ought, above all, to have regard for his habits and that there should be in him a (sense of) honesty and shame, otherwise there will be selected only an instrument of trouble and a beginning of corruption for there is no one who believes that in a dishonest education and in a brutish mind, there can exist some virtu which in some part may be praiseworthy. Nor does it appear to me superfluous, rather I believe it necessary, in order for you to understand better the importance of this selection, to tell you the method that the Roman Consuls at the start of their Magistracy observed in selecting the Roman legions. In which Deletto, because those who had to be selected were to be a confection of new and veteran men because of the continuing wars, they proceeded from experience with regard to the old (veteran) men, and from conjecture with regard to the new. And this ought to be noted, that these Deletti are made, either for immediate training and use, or for future employment.I have talked, and will talk, of those that are made for future employment, because my intention is to show you how an army can be organized in countries where there is no military (organization), in which countries I cannot have Deletti in order to make use of them. But in countries where it is the custom to call out armies, and by means of the Pr ince, these (Deletti) exist, as was observed at Rome and is today observed among the Swiss. For in these Deletti, if they are for the (selection of) new men, there are so many others accustomed to being under military orders, that the old (veteran) and new, being mixed together, make a good and united body.Notwithstanding this, the Emperors, when they began to hold fixed the (term of service of the) soldiers, placed new men in charge over the soldiers, whom they called Tironi, as teachers to train them, as is seen in the life of the Emperor Maximus which thing, while Rome was free, was instituted, not in the army, but within the City and as the military exercises where the young men were trained were in the City, there resulted that those then chosen to go to war, being accustomed in the method of mock warfare, could easily adapt themselves to real war. But afterwards, when these Emperors discontinued these exercises, it was necessary to employ the methods I have described to you.Ar riving, therefore, at the methods of the Roman Selection, I say that, as soon as the Roman Consuls, on whom was imposed the carrying on of the war, had assumed the Magistracy, in wanting to organize their armies as it http//oll. libertyfund. org/Home3/EBook. php? recordID=0523 Page 17 of 106 Machiavelli_0523 09/15/2005 0927 AM carrying on of the war, had assumed the Magistracy, in wanting to organize their armies as it was the custom that each of them had two legions of Roman men, who were the nerve (center) of their armies, created cardinal four military Tribunes, proposing sextuplet for each legion, who filled that office which today is done by those whom we call Constables. After they had assembled all the Roman men adept at carrying arms, and placed the Tribunes f each legion apart from each of the others. Afterwards, by lot they drew the Tribes, from which the first Selection was to be made, and of that Tribe they selected four of their best men, from whom one was selected by the Tribunes of the first legion, and of the other three, one was selected by the Tribunes of the second legion of the other two, one was selected by the Tribunes of the third, and that last belonged to the fourth legion. After these four, four others were selected, of whom the first man was selected by the Tribunes of the second legion, the second by those of the third, the third by those of the fourth, the fourth remained to the first.After, another four were chosen the first man was selected by the (Tribunes of the) third (legion), the second by the fourth, the third by the first, the fourth remained to the second. And thus this method of selection changed successively, so that the selection came to be equal, and the legions equalized. And as we said above, this was done where the men were to be used immediately and as it was formed of men of whom a good part were experienced in real warfare, and everyone in mock battles, this Deletto was able to be based on conjecture and exper ience. But when a new army was to be organized and the selection made for future employment, this Deletto cannot be based except on conjecture, which is done by age and physical appearance.COSIMO I believe what you have said is entirely true but before you pass on to other discussion, I want to ask about one thing which you have made me remember, when you said that the Deletto which should be made where these men are not accustomed to fighting should be done by conjecture for I have heard our organization censured in many of its parts, and especially as to number for many say that a lesser number ought to be taken, of whom those that are drawn would be better and the selection better, as there would not be as much hardship imposed on the men, and some reward given them, by means of which they would be more content and could be better commanded. Whence I would like to know your opinion on this part, and if you preferred a greater rather than a smaller number, and what methods you wou ld use in selecting both numbers. FABRIZIO Without doubt the greater number is more worthy and more necessary than the smaller rather, to say better, where a great number are not available, a perfect organization cannot be made, and I will easily refute all the reasons cited in advance of this. I say, therefore, first, that where there are many people, as there are for example inTuscany, does not cause you to have better ones, or that the Deletto is more selective for desiring in the selection of men to judge them on the basis of experience, only a very few would probably be found in that country who would have had this experience, as much because few have been in a war, as because of those few who have been, very few have ever been put to the test, so that because of this they merit to be chosen before the others so that whoever is in a similar situation should select them, must leave experience to one side and take them by conjecture and if I were brought to such a necessity, I would want to see, if twenty young men of good physical appearance should come before me, with what rule rule I ought to take some or reject some h