Principles Of Personal Development Essay

Social workers follow certain standards that give guidance on ways of working that have been identified as good practice. These standards include: †¢ legal requirements (regulations) †¢ codes of practice †¢ national occupation standards (for training in different job roles) †¢ minimum standards Identify two standards for each of the different aspects of social care work listed below. see more:principles of personal development in adult social care settings Ai – Confidentiality and sharing information: 1. Legal Requirement: Data Protection Act 2. National Occupation Standards: Quality and Safety Aii – Equality and diversity: 1. Code of Practice: Equality Act 2. National Occupation Standards: Quality and Safety Aiii – Health and safety: 1. Legal Requirement: Manual Handling Regulations 2. Legal Requirement: Health and Safety at Work Act Aiv – Personal development: 1. National Occupation Standards: Quality and Safety 2. Codes of Practice: GSCC Av – Safeguarding and protection: 1. Codes of Practice: GSCC 2. National Occupation Standards: Quality and Safety Avi – Explain what a PDP is, and what it should include: A ‘PDP’ is a Personal Development Plan. A PDP is a written document that is agreed upon between you and or employer. A PDP will include information about what qualifications you have, training you have got and what training you still need to do. What goals you have set for yourself, what you feel you can improve on and what your employer thinks you need to improve on.  Avii – Identify three people who might be involved in providing information and feedback for a personal development plan: 1. Matron 2. Senior Staff 3. Service Users Aviii – List three different ways your own learning and development might be supported: 1. Appraisals 2. Encouraging feedback from senior members of staff/service users 3. Courses Aix – List four different ways that a personal development plan may benefit your learning and development: 1. Setting own realistic goals that helps you achieve the best you can 2. Organisation can help improve reaching time limits 3. Improvement can easily be achieved 4. Making sure you are reaching you goals and what you can do to change it Task B Case Study Jenna supports individuals living in their own homes and is having her first appraisal/review with her supervisor, Fatima. Fatima tells her that she can be trusted to use her own initiative, which is important because she works alone for much of the time. She is told that she is very reliable and caring. Feedback from individuals about her work is generally positive, but there has been a complaint from one service user who says he feels rushed and finds her manner rude. Jenna tells Fatima that she disapproves of some of his ways, which are against her beliefs, but had not realised that this showed in her attitude. Bi – Describe how Jenna should ensure that her personal attitudes and beliefs do not affect her work: Jenna needs to make sure that her personal believes are put aside, respecting the service users needs are more important than a personal opinion which may differ. Keeping work and personal life separate is crucial when working with others. Bii – Explain why it is important to reflect on your work activities: Reflecting on work activities is an important way for developing your knowledge and skills. Looking back on what you have done in the day will allow you to pick up on things you thought you could have done differently, find weaknesses and improve. Task C Reflective account Ci – Think of a learning activity you have taken part in that has improved your knowledge, skills and understanding. The activity may have been a training session, a demonstration of practice, learning a new skill or a research activity: Give a description of experience and how did this experience improve your knowledge, skills and understanding? When I first started in the caring industry I was lucky to have training in manual handling quite soon on, I was starting to feel my back hurting and finding it tricky to work together with the other carer when using the hoist/stand aid. After the training session I now know how to save my back from feeling the strain by make sure everything is in a good level reach and that communication when using the hoist and stand aid is important to both members of staff to reach the goal and for the service user to be safe. Cii – Think of an example of a time you have received feedback from others than has improved your knowledge, skills and understanding. This may have been from your assessor, tutor, a supervisor or line manager, or individuals using the service. Give a Description of feedback and how did this experience improve your knowledge, skills and understanding? When starting, feeding was one of my down falls. I used to get frightened I was going to choke someone, or course someone to aspirate. Whenever I could get information on individuals feeding habits I would make a point in asking. I would ask people for advice which really helped and would watch other people give feeding aid at lunch/dinner times. I received the best feedback on another carer when they showed me how they feed one individual, making sure you notice when they swallow. Ever since I have been more confident and I might still need improving in it, I do feel like I can safely feed someone.

Demographic economics Essay

Overpopulation is an issue which is constantly being debated upon, as the very aspect of humanity is at stake here. Paul R Ehrlich, Anne H Ehrlich, Frank Furedi and Vanessa Baird bring each of their unique perspectives to the table. Ehrlich and Ehrlich, in the abstract from â€Å"The Population Bomb Revisited†, believe that overpopulation is a problem that needs to be constantly addressed for humanity to survive in the long run. On the other hand, Furedi shares his views, in the article â€Å"Really Bad Ideas: Population Control†, about how he thinks the people that perceive overpopulation as a hindrance are the real problem here rather than overpopulation itself. Baird, from â€Å"Population Panic†, takes a neutral stand on overpopulation among the 3 authors. She does approach overpopulation with caution and yet is optimistic that the issue of overpopulation will get taken care on its own the way things are flowing. Ehrlich and Ehrlich believe that the natural resources humans have available to them are limited and overpopulation will only hasten the exploitation of these resources (65). Ehrlich and Ehrlich also warn that â€Å"it is an error to consider increases in human numbers as automatically expanding real wealth† as it can be seen in the case of China and India (64).Other problems due to overpopulation would be depletion of ozone layer due to exploitation of chlorofluorocarbons and increase in carbon dioxide emissions(66). Ehrlich and Ehrlich also believe that overpopulation will eventually lead to a resource war among ourselves as â€Å"the capacity of Earth to produce food and support people is finite† (68). The only way that we can escape without having to deal with the death rate solution would be to â€Å"entrain a general population decline toward an optimal number† (68). Ehrlich and Ehrlich believe that humans will have to lower fertility rates much further if they want to survive with adequate resources (68). Low fertility rates also lead to an ageing which is ideal as it is one that can easily controlled and managed (65). Furedi detests the very idea of population control. 1) Furedi points out that we are being hypocrites by spending a lot on healthcare and trying to make sure that people can live as long as possible but also blaming ourselves as a source of the world’s problems and trying to minimize the population by carrying out birth control measures.(1) Furedi believes it is the Malthusians, such as Ehrlich and Ehrlich, that are the real problem as they promote inhuman practices such as birth control to be given such great lengths of attention.(1) Furedi discredits Ehrlich and Ehrlich ’ global warming concerns by stating that without human species, the issue would resolve by itself (2)and so the â€Å"obsession with natural limits distracts society from the far more creative search for solutions to hunger or poverty or lack of resources†(5). He also claims that Malthusians strongly lower people’s confidence in fighting future problems(5) by giving people immoral solutions such as stopping to reproduce altogether. Malthusians also enforce the use of contraception for women in poor countries by disguising the whole thing and calling it counseling about family planning which is mandatory for everyone to attend(3). Furedi wants people to start believing in themselves again and begin having faith in humanity as a whole. Furedi believes that people will never reach the â€Å"death rate solution† mentioned by Ehrlich and Ehrlich if they do not sacrifice humanity. According to Furedi, overpopulation should never have been given this much attention and spotlight in the first place. Vanessa Baird seems to recognize that there are both positive aspects and negative aspects of trying to deal with overpopulation. She approaches this topic with caution as there are estimated to be about nine billion people by the year 2050(5). Baird is still optimistic in the sense that she believes that humans are well on their way to stabilizing the populations, â€Å"Fertility rates around the world are falling. If this trend continues, it will help stabilize global population size.† (Baird,5).Baird agrees with Fureti to a certain extent about people starting to blame overpopulation for all their problems, such as child abuse, murder and increase in carbon emissions and people implement more birth control measures instead of finding other solutions to these problems. Unlike Fureti, Baird does not seem to question the moral aspect of dealing with overpopulation. Baird also does agree with Ehrlich and Ehrlich also to some extent about implementing birth control measures as she believes that there are other benefits of lower fertility rather than just population control, such as more education since there is more money available per child when resources are not stretched as much anymore(7). Finally, unlike Ehrlich and Ehrlich, Baird believes that ageing population is not such a great thing as many problems do come with it (8).Paul R Ehrlich, Anne H Ehrlich, Frank Furedi, Vanessa Baird each had their own thoughts and views on overpopulation. Vanessa Baird saw the advantages and disadvantages of tackling this overpopulation. For Frank Furedi, this was never an issue to begin with. Ehrlich and Ehrlich want more emphasis to be given on dealing with the problem of overpopulation . Work Cited Frank Furedi â€Å"Really Bad Ideas: Population Control† spiked, 18 June 2007 Paul R Ehrlich, Anne H Ehrlich â€Å"The Population Bomb Revisited.† The Electronic Journal of Sustainable Development 2009, p.64-70 Vanessa Baird â€Å"Population Panic† New Internationalist, January/February 2010

Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman (cited) Essay Example for Free

Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman (cited) Essay Marriage (796) , Death (671) , Arthur Miller (560) , Sales (458) , Death of a Salesman (121) , Willy Loman (98) , Henrik Ibsen (84) , A Doll's House (53) , Krogstad (43) , Nora Helmer (19) company About StudyMoose Contact Careers Help Center Donate a Paper Legal Terms & Conditions Privacy Policy Complaints Willy and Nora: Tragic Heroes or Home-wreckers? No one has a perfect life. Despite what Aaron Spelling and his friends in the media might project to society today, no one’s life is perfect. Everyone has conflicts that they must face sooner or later. The ways in which people deal with these conflicts can be just as varied as the people themselves. Some procrastinate and ignore their problems as long as they can, while others attack problems to get them out of the way as soon as possible. The Lowman and Helmer families have a number of problems that they deal with in different ways, which proves their similarities and differences. Both Willy Loman, the protagonist of Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman and Nora Helmer, protagonist of Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House experience an epiphany where they realize that they were not the person the thought they were: while Willy’s catharsis brings about his death, Nora’s brings her to a new life; hers. Both character’s flaws bring about their departure from their respective families as well. They are both overly concerned with the appearances they and their families present to society: as a result they both project false images to others. From their appearance, both seem to be involved in stable marriages and appear to be going places. Willy’s job as a traveling salesman seems stable (although we never know what it is he sells) when he tells his family that he â€Å"knocked ’em cold in Providence, slaughtered ’em in Boston† (Miller 1228). It is not until Willy’s wife, Linda tells us that he â€Å"drives 700 miles and when he gets there, no one knows him any more, no one welcomes him† (Miller 1241). If that’s not enough to convince readers of his failure on the job, the fact that he gets fired after working for the same company for 36 years cements his incompetency in the business world to readers. While Nora does not work in the business world, (few woman, if any did over 120 years ago) her failure to take care of her responsibilities becomes quite evident as well. When the play opens and Nora enters with a Christmas tree and presents for the children, she gives off the impression of a good mother trying hard to prepare a great Christmas for her family. Upon further analysis we see that Nora’s duties, in general, are restricted to caring for the children, doing housework, and working on her needlepoint. Nora cannot complete these duties even with the full-time help of Anne Marie, a housekeeper who cleans up after Nora just as much as the children. When Nora and Kristine are having a discussion towards  the start of the play, Nora informs her friend that, â€Å"I’m so happy and relieved [with my marriage]. I must say its lovely to have plenty of money and not have to worry. Isn’t it?† (Ibsen 1119). The rosy picture she painted of her family and marriage are in stark contrast to the â€Å"stranger of a man† (Ibsen 1168) she refers to her husband as. We realize that she had not been living her life at all; rath er the life that her husband wanted her to live. While both Willy and Nora succeed in giving of the appearance of being competent, efficient and helpful family members who contribute to the well being of their respective families, they prove otherwise as the plays progress. While the two plays take place nearly 100 years apart, are set on different continents and each have completely different family members, both engage in lies and deceit that hurt their families; after which each protagonist leaves their family. Not only does Willy lie about his performance on the job, he lies about his â€Å"faulty car† as well. He tells his family that the Studebaker keeps malfunctioning when in reality we find out through Linda that he has been deliberately trying to kill himself. The biggest way in which Loman deceives his family is by cheating on his wife while away for work in Boston. When his eldest son discovers his father’s unfaithfulness, he loses all trust for his father, and Biff’s life pretty much goes downhill from there. Willy Loman’s lies, deceit, unfaithfulness have resulted in huge problems for his family. Nora also starts trouble in her household through lies and deceit. Nora’s crime of forgery is not even a crime in her mind; she does not realize that the law does not take into account people’s motivations behind their actions. While she knows that Krogstad has been associated with shady law practices, she does not realize that his crime was on the same level, if not less illegal than the one that she has committed. When Tourvald opens the letter and finds out about her crime, he goes ballistic, and cannot believe that his own wife could be capable of such a crime. This is ultimately the reason / situation that helps Nora realize that she must leave her family in order to begin to live her own life. But Nora even lies about the little things in life such as the eating of macaroons (Ibsen 1126). Her husband forbade her from eating them on account that they will rot her teeth, and when she is seen eating them in her house, she says that they are a gift from Kristine, which is a lie. Both Willy and Nora’s lies and deceitfulness frustrate their families to the  point where each protagonist much leave their family; although Willy’s departure is his death, Nora’s is the start of her real life. Both main characters also use an escape mechanism to leave reality when they realize that their lives are on the wrong path. When Loman starts to realize that his pride and joy in life, Bi ff, â€Å"is a lazy bum† (Miller 1218) he begins to talk to himself (Miller 1221). These mental lapses bring Loman to a happier place and time, when his kids were young and innocent and he thought that the best part of his life lay still ahead. This acts almost as a defense mechanism against the pains of reality for Willy. In the final scene, after Biff tells his father that he is â€Å"a dime a dozen† and that the Loman name really doesn’t mean much, Willy engages in the ultimate escape mechanism; suicide. Although it may appear on the surface to be a selfish and coldhearted move to spite his family, he actually did it so that his family may live a better life with money he thinks they will receive from his life insurance policy. When faced with the harsh pains of reality, Nora also uses defense / escape mechanisms to ignore the problems at hand first, then to conquer them in the end. She believes that she has done nothing wrong, and that if what she has done is illegal, that her good intentions will nullify the illegality of her forgery. When Krogstad informs her otherwise, tells her the possible repercussions of her act, and ultimately gives her an ultimatum, this is her first touch of reality outside of the doll’s house that she lives in. To cope with the harshness outside of t his doll’s house, she immediately retreats back inside and attempts to distract herself with Christmas decorations (Ibsen 1133). She uses the tree and presents to distract her from her problems, and tells the nursemaid Anne Marie that she’s too busy to play with her kids who want to see her because she must try to distance her mind from the subject at hand. Here she is only making the problem worse by not dealing with it. When she finally realizes that her â€Å"main duty [is] to [her]self† (Ibsen 1166), and that she has been living life according to what her father and husband have wanted rather than what she has wanted, Nora’s epiphany is complete. She knows that the only possible solution that can work for her is to leave right away. Willy and Nora both escape their problems first by drifting away with mental distractions, then when they fully realize their problems, they both must physically leave their families. For Willy this means death, for Nora, the  start of (a new) life. Willy and Nora share a fatal flaw: they try to make others happy before making themselves happy. All that Willy ever wanted in life was to be â€Å"well-liked† and for his sons to follow in his footsteps. Their lives focused too much on fulfilling others rather than themselves, and in the end this flaw led to their departure from each of their respective families. When Charley asks Willie â€Å"when the hell are you ever going to grow up?† and Biff declares that â€Å"we never told the truth in this house for 10 minutes† (Miller 1280) we realize that Willy will never grow up and that he must leave his family because he will never grow up and that nearly his whole life has been a farce. Similarly, when Nora tells her husband that the only way he (and her) can only change if Tourvald has â€Å"his doll taken away† (Ibsen 1168) we realize that Nora’s life too has been a farce and that she must leave in order to begin her own life. We will write a custom sample essay on Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman (cited) specifically for you We have essays on the following topics that may be of interest to you

What strategies are effective in prolonging breastfeeding Essay

What strategies are effective in prolonging breastfeeding - Essay Example Also, breast milk is economical, readily available (NHS, 2007), and could positively affect the child’s IQ level. (Angelsen et al., 2001) For this reason, the World Health Organization (WHO) strongly recommends mothers to breastfeed their baby up to the first 6th month of age (WHO, 2007) while others recommend that breastfeeding should last up to the 12th month of age (National Health and Medical Research Council, 2003). Considering the benefits of breastfeeding, it is necessary to determine several strategies that could prolong the breastfeeding between the nursing mother and a new born infant. In the process, the research study will contribute a lot to the â€Å"Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative† (BFHI) project that was organized by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) back in 1992 in order to promote a global breast-feeding practice. (Unicef, 2007) A lot of mothers are experiencing difficulties related to breastfeeding during the early part of postpartum period. There are quite a number of factors such as the type of labour and birth (Jordan et al., 2005; Henderson et al., 2003; Rowe-Murray & Fisher, 2002; Sinusas & Gagliardi, 2001) as well as nutritional intake the expectant mother (McCrory et al., 1999) has been exposed with may affect the production of breast milk among the newly mothers. A good example related to the type of labour is the research study conducted by Torvaldsen et al. (2006), Baumgarder et al. (2003, and Henderson et al. (2003) showing the use of epidurals or adding fentanyl (an opoid) to epidurals analgesia during the time the expectant mother is in labour blocks the opportunity for mothers to fully breastfed their infants few days after the delivery. Eventually, the drug ceases breast milk production during or right after the first 24 weeks. Although it has been noted that the use of epidurals could result to difficulty in breastfeeding, the impact of

Feasibility Study (ABC fast food restaurant in Cambrige) Research Paper

Feasibility Study (ABC fast food restaurant in Cambrige) - Research Paper Example The paper dwells upon ABC Fast Food. It is a small domestic fast food outlet in Cambridge which is intended to transform itself into a fast food restaurant by means of innovative and resourceful strategies. The food point is registered with Department of Food and Live Stock. ABC Fast Food is furnishing a mixture of wonderful foodstuff and it has a future plan to offer unparallel food at rational rates with entertaining environment. ABC will address the general public for local recipes, Italian dishes, as well as Chinese and Indian food. The major aim is to offer the customers with highest quality services and products to keep them staying again and again. ABC believes that by getting crucial financial support through its sale within two years, it will be able to capture 10-20% of the fast food market in Cambridge. The restaurant has estimated that it will enjoy a 37.3% profit for its investment by the end of April, 2013. Cambridge Demography The UK whole population consists of 19% of age less than 16 years, 65% between 17 to 65 years and 16% of over 65%. Cambridge total population 105,162 is currently ranked as 64th in UK. The 16.4% of its population consists of under 18, 69.7% belong to age group between 19 to 60 years, while rest of 13.9% are over 60 (Statistical Profile, 2011). The population consists of 73.8% of White British, 1.3% of White Irish, 9.8% of White Other, 2.2% of Mixed Race, 5.5% of British Asian, 5.1% of Chinese and others and 2.3% of Black British. The strength of college and graduate students is 22,580. The per capita income in Cambridge is $67,297 (Statistical Profile, 2011). The University of Cambridge established in 1209, is the 2nd oldest university in UK and 4th oldest in the Europe. The university consists of 18396 students (undergraduate 12,018 and postgraduate 6,378) and 8614 employees. The student strength of Cambridge University is about 14.75% of the total population of the city. By 2016, the population of the

Why Health-Care should be free in America Essay

Why Health-Care should be free in America - Essay Example They deem it a birthright. Caring for the country’s sick without regard to their societal position is a duty civilized societies accept, at least those outside of America. The Republican answer is to give tax incentives to businesses and individuals that buy health insurance however this would not deal with the root of the problem. Even people with insurance are restricted to the treatments they get, usually dependent on bureaucrats rather than doctors to determine treatment. Democrats support what is termed as a ‘single payer’ system, otherwise named universal health care, a more effective system that covers all persons, essentially imitating a similar approach employed by Canada, Britain, Brazil, Cuba, Japan, Russia, western European nations and many other countries. Employing universal health care will greatly reduce the burden of rising healthcare costs to working families and eradicate the quality of care segregate in this country that exists between the rich and the other 95 percent of the people. The majority of Americans identify the health care crisis as one of the major concerns facing the country as evidenced by the magnitude of rhetoric allocated to this subject. Most Americans agree with the majority of the world in that a nation has the responsibility to care for its injured and sick regardless of their financial status. â€Å"Nearly seven in ten respondents go so far as indicating they would be willing to pay more in federal taxes to assure that every American citizen has health care coverage† (â€Å"Who should pay† 2004). That more than 45 million American citizens do not possess health insurance is widely recognized but it’s those who are insured who too often cannot afford the health care they need. A universal health care system similar to what is offered the majority of ‘civilized’ nations should not be

Japanese Women in Meiji Period Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Japanese Women in Meiji Period - Essay Example Meiji era represents an age in Japanese history in which one substantial reform was carried out after the other for the progress of the Japanese society. Historians agree that the Meiji era in Japanese history presented a succession of large reforms that were to bring about an improvement in Japanese society. It appears that, although, the Meiji government did try to improve the situation for women in Japan, it could not alter fundamental influences. Thus, despite a movement towards emancipation, greater equality and freedom for women in Japan was to wait until the end of the war. It is clear, that although remnants of the Tokugawa thinking and fundamental influences from old Japan continued into the Meiji period, processes of reform and efforts for change accelerated into the Meiji era. A certain movement towards the greater emancipation of women in the Japanese society of the Meiji era is apparent. However, a pronounced change was only possible after the war when Japan was to surrender. Despite the reforms of the Meiji era, exploitation based on class differences, economic poverty and the inequality of the sexes had continued in Japan. A country in an era that had seen poor peasants selling their daughters to brothels without state intervention could not be an egalitarian society. Thus, a combination of factors related to tradition, economic inequality and class differences had resulted in a certain rebellion amongst some quarters. Although the Meiji government did try to improve the situation, it could not radically alter the inequalities in the society or change the Japanese mentality. Only a major revolution after the war made it possible for further positive change to occur.

Abstract Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 14

Abstract - Essay Example can be stimulated buy this events, this depends on the events that occur before, during and after the events, this is due to emerging issues like terrorism and other forms of crime. An increase to the number tourist does reflect a positive change in demand and supply if not both. The method used in this article is mainly theoretic as it takes into account of past events as their influence on the host countries and the countries at large. The authors have the conclusions that not all the expectations are reached after all the investing for those infrastructures to facilitate the major sport events. This is due to the fact that most of the funds spend may never be recovered as the post-event activities mostly do not turn out to be as expected (Solberg and Preuss). The important contributions of this paper is to show that the bidding cities should not be too optimistic to make high benefits in terms of returns either short term or long term. They focused on the economic gains of hosting major sport events though they can as well be criticized for assumption that most cities never earn the expected economic gains. This is because the facilities left can be used to host similar events were they can earn the lost revenues as there shall be no building on new structures. They could have included such situations in the paper as it is part of the post event period though not in such a shorter time as referred in the paper (Solberg and

Locus of Control, Optimism Levels, and Perseverance during a Essay

Locus of Control, Optimism Levels, and Perseverance during a Frustration Task - Essay Example According to Strain (1993), the concept of Locus of Control has not yet been applied to the study of college students and their ability to persist at school. Individuals with internal Locus of Control are believed to be mentally more aware, able better equipped for learning, and highly motivated as compared to those with external Locus of Control (Stone and Jackson, 1975). It is hypothesised in this report that a higher degree of optimism will correlate with a greater internal Locus of Control in an individual. And that a higher level of pessimism will correlate with a greater external Locus of Control. An optimist will perceive that many aspects of life are controllable and will therefore make efforts and take risks which will promote this belief, thus turning their Locus of Control internal. Whereas pessimists perceive that they are helpless to affect the events happening around them, so they will avoid taking steps to change things and thereby change their Locus of Control to exte rnal. The study of Locus of Control - both internal and external was found to provide valuable evidences on the behaviour and approach of individuals studied in terms of their reactions to marketing approaches where the factor of luck was involved (Tosi, Rizzo, and Mero, 2000). It was found that individuals with internal Locus of Control were more vulnerable to ideas of luck than those with an external orientation Miyazaki, Anthony, and Sprott, 2001). According to Tosi and colleagues (ibid), internal control is often correlated with better and more efficient work control in terms of adjusting to work environment, satisfaction, coping with stress, as well as level of involvement in one's job. While those with an external Locus of Control might exhibit a highly negative approach towards tasks or jobs that require independent action or decision making. A deeper analysis of such negativity or pessimistic behaviour was more deeply examined by Seligman and Martin (1991), these researchers repor t a strong link between pessimism and depression and suggest that the negative acts or behaviours are most often the results of learned helplessness. In this present study, those with an internal Locus of Control will likely be able to overcome the challenges presented to them. Individuals with an external Locus of Control will be more likely to have a negative outcome during the evaluations. The tasks presented in this experiment have to do with easily solvable "Non-Frustration" puzzles and unsolvable "Frustration" puzzles. It is expected that there will be a greater degree of perseverance for the "Non-Frustration" puzzles than the "Frustration" puzzles. In regards to GESS scores, the hypothesis is that the higher the score the more likely the test subject will be willing to persevere with a Frustration puzzle than those with a lower GESS score. Similarly, with a higher ICI score the hypothesis is that the subject will have greater perseverance with the Frustration puzzle than thos e with a lower ICI score. In summary, three hypotheses will be tested in this study. Hypothesis 1 is that there exists a relationship between Internal versus External Locus of Control and Optimism and Pessimism as measured by the GESS and ICI. Hypothesis 2 is that the GESS and

The situation of African Americans Essay Example for Free

The situation of African Americans Essay Throughout Americas history, African-Americans have suffered from racism, segregation, and persecution. Considering they were brought over on slave ships extremely filled not knowing weather they would live or die and forced to do labor, they have come a long way. To be where they are currently is obviously a major milestone. Today, African-Americans are more prosperous and motivated than ever. There is less poverty, more education, and better family lives among blacks than ever before! Slaves had everything important to them viciously taken. Stripped from their families, their homes, and their peaceful lives, they were placed in a world where they were powerless in society. As horrific as these memories are, they cant be overlooked. The thoughts and images that go hand and hand with these atrocious events must be used as the will, the want, and the motivation for success. After all, understanding the past is the key to unlocking the future! Education is a crucial factor in success. Today, 79 percent of African-Americans age 25 and over have at least completed high school, a record high. This is more than double the percent in 1970. Also, 86 percent of those ages 25 to 29 have earned a high school diploma, which is triple the percent thirty years prior. Seventeen percent of blacks 25 and above have even obtained a bachelors degree. Statistics are higher than theyve been in the past. No matter how disturbing the past is a person never knows what the future holds. Therefore, one must hold on to the past because it is the key to motivation. Motivation has led to success. The poverty rate among African-Americans, 23.6 percent, is the lowest ever recorded. $27,910 is the average income for an African-American household. And 700,000 fewer blacks were poor in 1999 than in 1998. In the past, an outcome such as this would have never been possible in the dominated world everyone knew. When a person looks back and sees how far theyve come, it is most definitely something to be proud of. Proud and prosperous, African-Americans are not only succeeding. They are getting together and staying together. Out of the 8.7 million African-American families, just under half were married. And these families are larger than any other ethnic group. Twenty-one percent of the families have at least five or more members. Only ten percent of males and ten percent of females have been divorced. Although their ancestors were ripped from their homes and torn apart from their family, today is a brave new world. As suppressed as the people were, all of the struggles and the hardships are ultimately what gave them the will and the desire to overcome the devastation. It has been long, hard road, but their past has led to prosperity. Unwilling to lose the never-ending battle, the fight continues constantly, unlocking doors to a successful future.

Canadas Involvement In World War Two History Essay

Canadas Involvement In World War Two History Essay The day World War 2 was announced Canada was still part of the British Commonwealth and the pressure was on them to join the war effort too. Canada did join the war eventually but took a full week to make the final decision after Britain. This decision later would either make or break the victory of the Allies. The majority of Canada greatly contributed to World War 2 by helping Britain greatly financially, providing the Allies with supplies for the war effort and by persuading its citizens to join the army, air force, factories. The greatest weapon, that was mandatory for success was money and wealth. Canada played a major role in providing large amounts of money to the Allies to help with the war effort. Throughout the deadly war, Canada had contributed three billion dollars to Britain and supplied weapons and military vehicles (141, Bryce). By the end of the world war, the British land force was armed with 60 percent Canadian made small rifles, Bren guns and anti-tank weapons. Also, hundreds of Canadian made aircrafts such as the mustangs, hurricanes, and Spitfires. 40 percent of the heavy bomber units used by the RAF were manufactured in Canada (Stacey, Encyclopedia). In the beginning of the war, Britain had eighty thousand military vehicles, but in the escape of Dunkirk they lost seventy five thousand of them. Not only did Canada supply weapons and war materials but Canadas automotive business helped gain the loss of their military vehicles. Not only did Canada re-manufacture what was lost, but they also produced a surplus amount for Britain (Total Effort, Globe and Mail). This shows how willing the citizens and the government were to stop the Nazi Regime. Canada is the nation, Canadians are the people, and Canadians are who helped the allies to gain this victory. September of 1939, 58,337 men and women enlisted in the Canadian Armed Forces. Aside from the fifty thousand in the Canadian army, large groups of Canadians joined the British army, especially in the Royal Air Force. About 3,000 had joined the Royal Canadian Navy in 1939, even though it was small crew it still played an integral role in many of the battles. Another 80,000 Canadians had volunteered for the navy but their services werent needed because the war had ended, before sixty ships and 13,500 men had the chance to be deployed (Veterans Affairs Canada, 2009). The greatest movement between the citizens was during the peak time of the war, when 439,000 women started to work in the service sector, 373,000 in manufacturing and 4,000 in construction. This was significant because the women werent mentally and physically prepared to work in such a small notice. Since for many g enerations women have only stayed home to nurture the children and take care of the house. Going into factories to produce items, let alone weaponry is a big transformation to their or anyones lifestyles (Canadian War Industry, 2007). War is a very a broad word, that combines all the battles that occurred into one category, but if the war is broken down to pieces there are many individual battles that can be analyzed in which Canada had an important role in. Operation D-Day is just one of the important battles that Canada leads the allies to a victory. D-Day was the allied invasion of Normandy, also remembered as the greatest seaborne invasion in history, which was just an 80 km wide stretch of land made up of five individual beaches. Canada was given the middle beach which shows that the allies really trusted the Canadian forces in doing a spectacular job. In total there were about 155,000 soldiers, nearly 5,000 ships, 50,000 vehicles and 11,000 planes were established for the assault. Canada had a share of 14,000 soldiers that were planned to land on the beaches; about another 500 were intended to be drop behind enemy lines by parachute or gliders. The Royal Canadian Navy and Royal Canadian Air Force supported t he invasion by deploying 10,000 sailors, Lancaster bombers and Spitfire fighters. With such an armed squad they landed on the shores of Juno Beach where they were part of the British Second Army, under the command of British Lt. General Miles Dempsey. The units were however from all across the country, ranging from North Nova Scotia Highlanders, to the Canadian Scottish Victoria. The plan was carried out at 6 am in the morning with a high artillery strike of the beaches, in within an hour the soldiers were far away from the ships they had landed in. Exactly two hours later, the Canadians had devastated Juno beach and the German army was defenseless (CBC News, 2009). Everyhand feed baby that the world thought Canada was by Britain, was drastically changed after World War 2

The Advantages of Communism Over Capitalism Essay -- Politics Politica

The Advantages of Communism Over Capitalism The purpose of this essay is to prove that Communism is a better form of economic organization, compared to capitalism. I will use the following examples of quality, employment, health care and society, to show why Communism is a better form of economic organization. First of all in a communist regime, people are all equal to each other no matter how educated that person is, in the eyes of the government. For example a Surgeon how is very well educated is equal in status with a peasant farmer because in communism their is no such thing as lower class, middle class and upper class. Eliminating economic boundaries which separate people, benefits the whole society because then we eliminate the have and have not, as a circumstance it eliminates crime. Secondly in a Communist economic system people are never unemployed because the government owns the means of production. Meaning the governments owns all the factories and stores because their is no private owner ship in a Communist system. This is good because the government can control and decide what is needed for the good of society and produce it. Another reason why Communism is good is because everyone in the country is provided with a job, house and food; no one is denied the essentials of life. One of the most fundamental human rights is access to adequate health care. In Communist countries the right of access to health care is very well practiced, because no one is denied health care. In a Communist country you could go to the Doctor for lets say a Flu shot or a complicated procedure such as a triple coronary bypass surgery and the government will pick up the tab, because in co... ...that Communism is really not that bad if it is administered right. When I started to compare and criticize capitalism compared to Communism I found out that Capitalism is really a harsh form economic organization in which the people of a same race or country are forced to compete at every thing they do. Not only that In a capitalism society many people how can't compete in a Capitalistic society are thrown aside and labeled as bums but society doesn't look to see what caused the problem and let these people spoil, because again in a capitalistic society "only the strong survive. Overall my views of Capitalism are true meaning that I do believe in Capitalism, but inside of me I feel that a little bit of Communism mixed with capitalism will make a perfect form of economic organization in which the whole of society benefits and moves forward. The Advantages of Communism Over Capitalism Essay -- Politics Politica The Advantages of Communism Over Capitalism The purpose of this essay is to prove that Communism is a better form of economic organization, compared to capitalism. I will use the following examples of quality, employment, health care and society, to show why Communism is a better form of economic organization. First of all in a communist regime, people are all equal to each other no matter how educated that person is, in the eyes of the government. For example a Surgeon how is very well educated is equal in status with a peasant farmer because in communism their is no such thing as lower class, middle class and upper class. Eliminating economic boundaries which separate people, benefits the whole society because then we eliminate the have and have not, as a circumstance it eliminates crime. Secondly in a Communist economic system people are never unemployed because the government owns the means of production. Meaning the governments owns all the factories and stores because their is no private owner ship in a Communist system. This is good because the government can control and decide what is needed for the good of society and produce it. Another reason why Communism is good is because everyone in the country is provided with a job, house and food; no one is denied the essentials of life. One of the most fundamental human rights is access to adequate health care. In Communist countries the right of access to health care is very well practiced, because no one is denied health care. In a Communist country you could go to the Doctor for lets say a Flu shot or a complicated procedure such as a triple coronary bypass surgery and the government will pick up the tab, because in co... ...that Communism is really not that bad if it is administered right. When I started to compare and criticize capitalism compared to Communism I found out that Capitalism is really a harsh form economic organization in which the people of a same race or country are forced to compete at every thing they do. Not only that In a capitalism society many people how can't compete in a Capitalistic society are thrown aside and labeled as bums but society doesn't look to see what caused the problem and let these people spoil, because again in a capitalistic society "only the strong survive. Overall my views of Capitalism are true meaning that I do believe in Capitalism, but inside of me I feel that a little bit of Communism mixed with capitalism will make a perfect form of economic organization in which the whole of society benefits and moves forward.

WITCH :: essays research papers

In the winter of 1692, a wave of witch hysteria surrounded the settlement of Salem Village in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The accusations began with two little girls who were acting strangely. There are many underlying factors to why these thoughts of witchcraft started coming about. These issues were going on before that winter of 1692. The winter of 1692 was the onset of the hysterics behind the witchcraft trials.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To understand the reasons behind the hysteria, you have to know a little about the people who settled the area of Salem Village. Mainly Puritans inhabited Salem Village. There were very few other religions at that time. The Puritans left England to escape religious persecution. Puritans wanted to purify the national church by eliminated what they saw as Catholic influence. They believed in the total sovereignty of God and the absolute sinfulness of man. They wanted to establish a union of church and state. Puritans believed they were entering into a sacred compact with God in the founding of the Massachusetts colony. They agreed to live according to his will in return for a divine endorsement in the New World.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The people of Salem Village believed in witches. The word witchcraft meant the â€Å"art of bewitching, casting spells, or manipulating the forces of nature†. It was the idea of the people that this was impossible without the cooperation of the Devil. Many perceived that the Devil resented their way of life. The Devil had to act through a witch to do physical harm to human beings. He couldnt do it on his own. People who wholly believed in witches were always on the lookout for them. As a result, many people were wrongly accused.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Puritans viewed the world in basic black and white. Discipline and devotion were slogans in the service of the Lord. The simplest acts of innocence were looked upon as questionable conduct or even abnormal. Sinners were severely punished in Salem Village. The punishments were meant to humiliate the person as well as hurt.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There was never respect for the privacy of any individual in the seventeenth century. The community as a whole was expected to uphold the Puritan religion. They were encouraged to watch their neighbors closely and report any behavior that drifted even slightly from the â€Å"straight and narrow†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  According to some sources there was a problem with womens increasing independence. They lived in a society where men exercised substantial authority over a woman.

Is Caffeine Addictive? Essay -- Biology Essays Research Papers

Is Caffeine Addictive? As exams approach, students everywhere reach for their coffee mugs, their Vivarine and No-Doz. Legions of wide-eyed and shaky young people stay up late into the night, printing out final papers and cramming a year worth of information into their over-burned minds. Falling asleep over books is not acceptable at this time of year. But this is not a new thing; many students have a late-night lifestyle supported by caffeine, getting an average of 5 hours of sleep a night. These young people are a part of the nearly 80% of Americans who depend on caffeine (1). They use it to stay awake when their bodies tell them they need to sleep. Many people use it simply to feel more awake or simply because they like the taste of coffee, sodas or teas which contain the drug. For those who love coffee, the taste is often cited as the reason for the "addiction" and the use of that word does not imply anything like a drug addiction. However, try to take away someone's coffee abruptly and chances are they will experience withdrawal symptoms (2). The body develops a dependence on caffeine which is very obvious; stop drinking coffee for a day after being a regular drinker and get a headache, then drink coffee and it goes away. Some call this an addiction, coining terms such as "caffeinisme" and "caffeine withdrawal syndrome" (4), and classify caffeine as a mind-altering drug (3) (5) (6) (7). Many others protect caffeine, saying it does not compare to a true drug addiction and some even claim it has benefits-that it not only increases alertness but has other healthful properties (2) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13). It is very difficult to find an objective article on the effects of caffeine, for while the information is often c... ...xhaustion. There is great need for more research regarding the properties of caffeine. There is too much contradictory information and studies are not conclusive. A huge number of people around the world consume enough caffeine to be diagnosed as dependent who have not been reassured that it is safe. Nor have they been given a good enough reason to stop their consumption or cut down to safer levels of caffeine intake. It would take a lot of negative findings to dissuade people from using the drug, but a better understanding on all properties could also find more uses for caffeine and could reassure those who are doubtful of the safety of caffeine consumption. Internet Sources: http://www.usa-gymnastics.org/publications/usa-gymnastics/1996/4/body-balance.html http://www.healthy.net/scr/article.asp?ID=800 http://www.healthy.net/scr/article.asp?ID=2046

Paper Bag

JoAnna Baugh Greg Bade English 40322 11, September, 2012 Paper bag Essay If you were to give me a paper bag and told me to place three or four things that represented who I am inside of it, I would not know where to start. There are so many things that I could fit in a paper bag that describes me. I think that these three specific items will represent me the most. The first item that I would place inside of the paper bag would be a coffee cup from Starbucks because I am an avid coffee drinker. I have tried to drink coffee straight without creamer or sugar but to no prevail.The taste, in my honest opinion, is revolting and there is no flavor if you do not add anything to your coffee. I also plan on owning my own coffeehouse in the distant future. I have always been involved in culinary arts. My mother got me into it when I was two and ever since then it is all I have been passionate about. I was even in a culinary program when I was in high school and instead of just learning how to c ook; it gave me the opportunity to experience what it would be like to work in something similar to Starbucks.Sure, there were times where I thought I could not take anymore, but I got through it and even through the chaos I enjoyed every moment. For my next item, I would choose the music score from Wicked, one of my favorite musicals. My friends at church would go on and on about glorious it was, so I wanted to see what they were getting all worked up about. I went on YouTube that night and listened to the soundtrack, falling in love with it instantly. Although I am getting more affiliated with more and more musicals, Wicked will always be number one.Another reason why I would add a music score is because I love to sing. Especially whenever my mother plays a song on the piano that I know the words to. The final item I would place inside this paper bag would be a pencil. There are so many things I have done with a pencil, but whenever I have a pencil in my hand, I am writing. I am c urrently writing a few stories and I have a short story in mind that I would like to bring to life. My sister is to blame for my passion for writing.I would always see her writing down whatever she could think of which inspired me to do the same. Ever since that day, writing has become much easier to me, especially free writing. Each item I have put inside of my paper bag has one thing in common. They are all things that I love. I love to drink coffee, if it is flavored of course; I love musicals, mainly Wicked, and to sing; and I love to write. If that does not describe who I am, then I do not know what does.

Native American Movement

To most experts, the 1950’s was a defining period for the Americans; one which saw the emergence of the United States as a global superpower, whose clout and influence extended to the far reaches of the globe. America’s glorious victory in World War II has paved the way for a leadership role that the United States took to with effortless skill. This newfound sense of economic and political power changed the lay of America’s land. While World War II ended successfully for the United States, its end meant the beginning of a new struggle for the Americans, or to be more accurate, the continuation of a struggle that started when the Pioneers first settled in America. The Native Americans, as first settlers of the United States before it was called as such, have always been reluctant to welcome the Pioneers. This has led to several violent battles, but eventually to an uneasy compromise. This tenuous peace was threatened once again after the war, as renewed prosperity encouraged the United States government to attempt the re-assimilation of the Native Americans into mainstream society. This brought about an upheaval among Native Americans as they considered this move a threat to their culture and way of living which they have furiously fought for. Most of the uprooted Native Americans were unable to adapt to urban life, and ended up worse than where they started. Clearly while the United State government meant well, the move to urbanize Native Americans failed miserably. The 1960’s brought with it a legacy of â€Å"assimilation and cultural legitimization† (Benham, 2002, 3), and it left on its heels a nation of Native Americans who are more aware of their rights and became more assertive in pushing for those rights. The 1960’s saw the Native American Movement taking off led by a new generation of well-educated leaders fighting to restore Native Americans lands that have been taken away from them. All across the United States, these Native American leaders disputed violations and successfully negotiated for expanded rights for the American Indians. This movement culminated in the establishment of the American Indian Movement (AIM) in 1968 which was founded with the initial purpose of placing state-mandated subsidies in the hands of locally-controlled American Indian organizations, and then channel these funds to Native Indians who needed them the most. However, in the 1970’s the American Indian Movement evolved into a secessionist group which aggressively promoted â€Å"self-governance and return to tribal ways† (Patterson et al, 2005, 77) This fervor spread like wildfire across the United States. American Indians took their cause to the streets, to the courts, to the media, and to all other possible venues where they can express their indignation and press for their rights. In an effort to recover ancestral land, they sued the states that have forcibly taken American Indian territories. They have also been able to protect their land against development. Needless to say, all of these militant protests paid off, with the government granting them concessions. In the 1970’s, there was a succession of legislation passed ensuring better treatment for the Native Americans. In 1972, the Indian Education Act gave Native American greater options over the schools that they can choose to send their children. In 1976, the Indian Health Care Act was passed to provide better health care for American Indians. In 1978, in acknowledgement of Native Indian ways, the Indian Child Welfare Act was enacted which gave Indian tribes the authority to deliberate and decide custody issues involving Indian children. (Mintz, 2007) Indeed the late 1960s and early 1970s was a period of political enlightenment and activism, not just among Native Americans, but among disenfranchised groups such as the African Americans and women’s rights groups. In the case of the Native Americans, the activism was spurred by poverty and lack of support from the government. By the 1960s, while most of the United States was experiencing prosperity, American Indians have remained among the poorest of the country’s minority groups, and the government has remained largely indifferent to their plight. This resurgence in Native American Nationalism resulted in armed confrontations and death, but it managed to bring desired results as well. Sometimes it does take militant action to compel a government to pay attention and take action. Other Americans, who did not know any better, became more aware of Native Americans and their plights, and some became active supporters to their cause. Elected officials such as senators and congressmen were compelled to support legislation that protected the rights of the American Indians and ensured their equal protection. Indeed it might be said that the Native American movement was a movement that has been a long time in the making. But when it did take place, it did so at the best possible time. The movement came at a time when Americans were becoming aware of the rights of others, and thus American society was only too willing to heed the call of a people who have been in the land long before anyone else did. References: Benham, K.P. (2002). The Renaissance of American Indian Higher Education: Capturing the Dream. Edited by Wayne J. Stein. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. P. 3. Mintz, S. (2007). America in Ferment: The Tumultuous 1960s. The Native American Power Movement. Digital History. Retrieved October 10, 2007 from http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=387 Patterson, J. T., et al. (2005). The Oxford history of the United States. Oxford University Press. p. 77.   

Management Theories

ABSTRACT Management is the most important part of any organization. No organization can achieve its objectives without proper management. So management is considered the hub of any organization. As society continuously relied on group effort, and as many organized groups have become large, the task of managers has been increasing in importance and complexity. To meet the challenges like competition, efficient and economical uses of sources and maximum output, knowledge of management and theories of management is basic requirement.Henceforth, managerial theory has become crucial in the way managers manage complex organizations. This article will provide the basic information of main management theories and how they have developed. It also addresses the management objectives, functions, goals, and essentiality as well as the requirement skills of a Manger. Relating to my current company – AON Vietnam, member of AON Corporation, the article point out which theory of management fi t best with the style of management in AON Corporation, one of biggest insurance brokers worldwide and what a Manager at AON should do. Topic 1 & 2) CONTENTS I. MAIN MANAGEMENT THEORIES 1. Definition of Management According to Drucker (1974) Management is â€Å"the activity of getting things done with the help of others peoples and resources†. It means that management is a process of accomplishing work with the help of other people. According to Weijrich and Koontz (1993) â€Å"Management is process of planning, leading, organizing and controlling people within a group in order to achieve goals. It is also the guidance and control of action required to execute a program.It indicates that there should be definite plan/program for affective management (Shied, 2010). On the basis of these definitions it can be concluded that management is a process that includes strategic planning, setting objectives, managing resources, developing the human and financial assets needed to achie ve objectives and measuring results. It also includes recording facts and information for later use upon requirement. 2. Management Theories Contemporary theories of management tend to account for and help interpret the rapidly changing nature of today’s organizational environments.Several important management theories which are broadly classified as follows: 1. The Scientific Management School. 2. The Classical Organizational Theory School. 3. The Behavioural School. 4. The Management Science School. 5. Recent developments in Management Theory comprising works such as Systems Approach, Situational or Contingency theory, Chaos theory, and Team Building approach. This discussion will provide a general description of these management theories, how they have developed and the successes that they achieved. A Timeline Overview of Key Management theories pic] a. The Scientific Management School The first management theory is what is popularly referred to as Frederick Taylor’ s Scientific Management. Frederick Taylor (1856 – 1915) started the era of modern management. Taylor consistently sought to overthrow management â€Å"by rule of thumb† and replace it with actual timed observations leading to â€Å"the one best† practice. â€Å"Taylorism† involved breaking down the components of manual tasks in manufacturing environments, timing each movement (‘time and motion' studies) so that there could be a proven best way to perform each task.Thus employees could be trained to be ‘first class' within their job. This type of management was particularly relevant to performance drives e. g ‘Action On' projects. It has to be acknowledged that from an economic standpoint, Taylorism was an extreme success. Application of his methods yielded significant improvements in productivity. For example, improvements such as his shovel work at Bethlehem Works, which reduced the workers needed to shovel from 500 to 140. Henceforth, Taylor proposed four underlying principles of management: First, there is need to develop a ‘science of work’ to replace old rule-of-thumb methods: pay and other rewards linked to achievement of ‘optimum goals’ – measures of work performance and output; failure to achieve these would in contrast result in loss of earnings. – Second, workers to be ‘scientifically’ selected and developed: training each to be ‘first-class’ at some specific task. – Third the ‘science of work’ to be brought together with scientifically selected and trained people to achieve the best results. Finally, work and responsibility to be divided equally between workers and management cooperating together in close interdependence. This was a rigid system where every task became discrete and specialized. However, many critics, both historical and contemporary, have pointed out that Taylor’s theories tend to â€Å"dehumani ze† the workers. Therefore, in summary, while the scientific management technique has been employed to increase productivity and efficiency both in private and public services, it has also had the disadvantages of ignoring many of the human aspects of employment.This led to the creation of boring repetitive jobs with the introduction of systems for tight control and the alienation of shop floor employees from their managers. b. Classical Organizational Theory School In this category of management theory are the works of Henri Fayol’s administrative theory and Max Weber’s bureaucratic theory. Administrative Theory Henri Fayol’s administrative theory mainly focuses on the personal duties of management at a much more granular level. Fayol believed that management had five principle roles: †¢ Forecasting and planning. †¢ Organizing. †¢ Commanding Co-ordinating †¢ Controlling. Forecasting and planning was the act of anticipating the future a nd acting accordingly. Organization was the development of the institution’s resources, both material and human. Commanding was keeping the institution’s actions and processes running. Co-ordination was the alignment and harmonization of the group’s efforts. Finally, control meant that the above activities were performed in accordance with appropriate rules and procedures. Fayol also developed fourteen principles of administration to go along with management’s five primary roles.These principles are: specialization/division of labor, authority with responsibility, discipline, unity of command, unity of direction, subordination of individual interest to the general interest, remuneration of staff, centralization, scalar chain/line of authority, order, equity, stability of tenure, initiative, and esprit de corps. Fayol clearly believed personal effort and team dynamics were part of an â€Å"ideal† organization. Fayol’s five principle roles of management are still actively practiced today. The concept of giving appropriate authority with responsibility is also widely commented on and is well practiced.Unfortunately, his principles of â€Å"unity of command† and â€Å"unity of direction† are consistently violated in â€Å"matrix management†, the structure of choice for many of today’s companies. Bureaucratic Theory Max Weber (1864 – 1924) postulated that western civilization was shifting from â€Å"wertrational† (or value oriented) thinking, affective action (action derived from emotions), and traditional action (action derived from past precedent) to â€Å"zweckational† (or technocratic) thinking. He believed that civilization was changing to seek technically optimal results at the expense of emotional or humanistic content.Through analyses of organizations, Weber identified three basic types of legitimate authority: – Traditional authority: where acceptance of those in authority arose from tradition and custom. – Charismatic authority: where acceptance arises from loyalty to, and confidence in, the personal qualities of the ruler. – Rational-legal authority: where acceptance arises out of the office, or position, of the person in authority as bounded by the rules and procedures of the organization. It is the rational-legal authority form that exists in most organizations today and this is the form to which Weber ascribed the term ‘bureaucracy'.The main features of bureaucracy according to Weber were: †¢ A continuous organization or functions bounded by rules. †¢ That individual functioned within the limits of the specialization of the work, the degree of authority allocated and the rules governing the exercise of authority. †¢ A  hierarchical  structure of offices. †¢ Appointment to offices made on the grounds of technical competence only. †¢ The separation of officials from the ownership of the organization. †¢ The authority was vested in the official positions and not in the personalities that held these posts.Rules, decisions and actions were formulated and recorded in writing. It is not coincidence that Weber's writings were at a time of the major industrial revolutions and the growth of large complex organizations out of the cottage industries and/or entrepreneurial businesses. c. Behavioural School The key scholar under this category is Elton Mayo. The origin of behavioralism is the human relations movement that was a result of the Hawthorne Works Experiment that started in the early 1920s. Elton Mayo and his associates’ experiments disproved Taylor’s beliefs that science dictated hat the highest productivity was found in ‘the one best way’ and that way could be obtained by controlled experiment. The Hawthorne studies attempted to determine the effects of lighting on worker productivity. When these experiments showed no clear correlati on between light level and productivity the experiments then started looking at other factors. These factors that were considered when Mayo was working with a group of women included no rest breaks, no free more hours in the work-day/work-week or fewer hours in the workday/work-week.With each of these changes, productivity went up. When the women were put back to their original hours and conditions, they set a productivity record. These results showed that the group dynamics and social makeup of an organization were an important force either for or against higher productivity. This outcome caused the call for greater participation for the workers, greater trust and openness in the working environment, and a greater attention to teams and groups in the work place.Finally, while Taylor’s impacts were the establishment of the industrial engineering, quality control and personnel departments, the human relations movement’s greatest impact came in what the organization†™s leadership and personnel department were doing. The seemingly new concepts of â€Å"group dynamics†, â€Å"teamwork†, and organizational â€Å"social systems†, all stem from Mayo’s work in the mid-1920s. d. Management Science Theories Douglas McGregor (1906-1964) postulated management ideas as contained in â€Å"Theory X† and â€Å"Theory Y†.Using human behaviour research, he noted that the way an organization runs depends on the beliefs of its managers. â€Å"Theory X† gives a negative view of human behaviour and management that he considered to have dominated management theory from Fayol onwards – especially Taylorism. It also assumes that most people are basically immature, need direction and control, and are incapable of taking responsibility. They are viewed as lazy, dislike work and need a mixture of financial inducements and threat of loss of their job to make them work (‘carrot and stick’ mentality). T heory Y†, the opposite of â€Å"Theory X†, argues that people want to fulfil themselves by seeking self-respect, self-development, and self-fulfilment at work as in life in general. The six basic assumptions for ‘Theory Y’ are: work is as natural as play or rest – the average human being does not inherently dislike work, whether work is a source of pleasure or a punishment (to be avoided) depends on nature of the work and its management. Second, effort at work need not depend on threat of punishment – if committed to objectives then self-direction and self-control rather than external controls.Third, commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement. Satisfaction of ego and self-actualization needs can be directed towards the objectives of the organization. Fourth, the average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek responsibility. Fifth, high degrees of imagination, ing enuity and creativity are not restricted to a narrow group but are widely distributed in the population. Lastly, under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentials of the average human being are being only partly utilized. . Recent Developments in Management Theory Under this category of theory are the Systems Approach, Situational or Contingency theory, Chaos theory, and Team Building theory. The systems theory has had a significant effect on management science and understanding organizations. A system is a collection of part unified to accomplish an overall goal. If one part of the system is removed, the nature of the system is changed as well. A system can be looked at as having inputs (e. g. , resources such as raw materials, money, technologies, and people), processes (e. g. planning, organizing, motivating, and controlling), outputs (products or services) and outcomes (e. g. , enhanced quality of life or productivity for customers/clients, productivity ). Systems share feedback among each of these four aspects of the system. The Chaos theory is advocated by Tom Peters (1942). Chaos theorists suggest that systems naturally go to more complexity, and as they do so, they become more volatile and must, therefore, expend more energy to maintain that complexity. As they expend more energy, they seek more structure to maintain stability.This trend continues until the system splits, combines with another complex system or falls apart entirely. It will need an effective manager for the latter worst scenario not to happen. Team Building approach or theory emphasizes quality circles, best practices, and continuous improvement. It is a theory that mainly hinges on reliance on teamwork. It also emphasizes flattening of management pyramid, and reducing the levels of hierarchy. Finally, it is all about consensus management – i. e. , involving more people at all levels in decision-making. 3. Management theory applied to AON II. WHAT A MANA GER DOESManaging, like all other practices – whether medicine, music composition, engineering, accountancy, or even baseball – is an art; it is know-how. It is doing things in the light of the realities of a situation. Managers just don't go out and perform their responsibilities. A good manager should discover how to master 05 basic functions: planning, organizing, staffing, leading and controlling. †¢ Planning:  This step involves mapping out exactly how to achieve a particular goal. For example, that the organization's goal is to improve company sales. The manager first needs to decide which steps are necessary to accomplish that goal.These steps may include increasing advertising, inventory, and sales staff. These necessary steps are developed into a plan. When the plan is in place, the manager can follow it to accomplish the goal of improving company sales. †¢ Organizing:  After a plan is in place, a manager needs to organize his team and materials a ccording to his plan. Assigning work and granting authority are two important elements of organizing. †¢ Staffing:  After a manager discerns his area's needs, he may decide to beef up his staffing by recruiting, selecting, training, and developing employees.A manager in a large organization often works with the company's human resources department to accomplish this goal. †¢ Leading:  A manager needs to do more than just plan, organize, and staff her team to achieve a goal. She must also lead. Leading involves motivating, communicating, guiding, and encouraging. It requires the manager to coach, assist, and problem solve with employees. †¢ Controlling:  After the other elements are in place, a manager's job is not finished. He needs to continuously check results against goals and take any corrective actions necessary to make sure that his area's plans remain on track.All managers at all levels of every organization perform these functions, but the amount of time a manager spends on each one depends on both the level of management and the specific organization. Roles performed by managers In his classic book,  The Nature of Managerial Work,  Henry Mintzberg describes a set of ten roles that a manager fills. These roles fall into three categories: †¢ Interpersonal:  This role involves human interaction. †¢ Informational:  This role involves the sharing and analyzing of information. †¢ Decisional:  This role involves decision making.The below table  contains a more in-depth look at each category of roles that help managers carry out all five functions described in the preceding â€Å"Functions of Managers† section. Mintzberg's Set of Ten Roles | | |Category | |Role | |Activity | | |Informational | |Monitor | |Seek and receive information; scan periodicals and reports; maintain personal contact with stakeholders. | | | | | |Disseminator | |Forward information to organization members via memos, reports, an d phone calls. | | | | |Spokesperson | |Transmit information to outsiders via reports, memos, and speeches. | | | |Interpersonal | |Figurehead | |Perform ceremonial and symbolic duties, such as greeting visitors and signing legal documents. | | | | |Leader | |Direct and motivate subordinates; counsel and communicate with subordinates. | | | | |Liaison | |Maintain information links both inside and outside organization via mail, phone calls, and meetings. | | |Decisional | |Entrepreneur | |Initiate improvement projects; identify new ideas and delegate idea responsibility to thers. | | | | | |Disturbance handler | |Take corrective action during disputes or crises; resolve conflicts among subordinates; adapt to environments. | | | | |Resource allocator | |Decide who gets resources; prepare budgets; set schedules and determine priorities. | | | | |Negotiator | |Represent department during negotiations of union contracts, sales, purchases, and budgets. | | | Skills needed by managers Not everyone can be a manager. Certain  skills,  or abilities to translate knowledge into action that results in desired performance, are required to help other employees become more productive. These skills fall under the following categories: Technical:  This skill requires the ability to use a special proficiency or expertise to perform particular tasks. Accountants, engineers, market researchers, and computer scientists, as examples, possess technical skills. Managers acquire these skills initially through formal education and then further develop them through training and job experience. Technical skills are most important at lower levels of management. †¢ Human:  This skill demonstrates the ability to work well in cooperation with others. Human skills emerge in the workplace as a spirit of trust, enthusiasm, and genuine involvement in interpersonal relationships. A anager with good human skills has a high degree of self-awareness and a capacity to understand or empathize with the feelings of others. Some managers are naturally born with great human skills, while others improve their skills through classes or experience. No matter how human skills are acquired, they're critical for all managers because of the highly interpersonal nature of managerial work. †¢ Conceptual:  This skill calls for the ability to think analytically. Analytical skills enable managers to break down problems into smaller parts, to see the relations among the parts, and to recognize the implications of any one problem for others.As managers assume ever-higher responsibilities in organizations, they must deal with more ambiguous problems that have long-term consequences. Again, managers may acquire these skills initially through formal education and then further develop them by training and job experience. The higher the management level, the more important conceptual skills become. †¢ Designing skill is the ability to solve problems in wa ys that will benefit the enterprise. To be effective, particularly at upper organizational levels, managers must be able to do more than see a problem.In addition, they must have the skill of a good design engineer in working out a practical solution to a problem. Managers must also have that valuable skill of being able to design a workable solution to the problem in the light of the realities they face. It has, however, got to be mentioned that the relative importance of these skills may differ at various levels in the organization hierarchy. Although all four categories contain skills essential for managers, their relative importance tends to vary by level of managerial responsibility. Management Theories ABSTRACT Management is the most important part of any organization. No organization can achieve its objectives without proper management. So management is considered the hub of any organization. As society continuously relied on group effort, and as many organized groups have become large, the task of managers has been increasing in importance and complexity. To meet the challenges like competition, efficient and economical uses of sources and maximum output, knowledge of management and theories of management is basic requirement.Henceforth, managerial theory has become crucial in the way managers manage complex organizations. This article will provide the basic information of main management theories and how they have developed. It also addresses the management objectives, functions, goals, and essentiality as well as the requirement skills of a Manger. Relating to my current company – AON Vietnam, member of AON Corporation, the article point out which theory of management fi t best with the style of management in AON Corporation, one of biggest insurance brokers worldwide and what a Manager at AON should do. Topic 1 & 2) CONTENTS I. MAIN MANAGEMENT THEORIES 1. Definition of Management According to Drucker (1974) Management is â€Å"the activity of getting things done with the help of others peoples and resources†. It means that management is a process of accomplishing work with the help of other people. According to Weijrich and Koontz (1993) â€Å"Management is process of planning, leading, organizing and controlling people within a group in order to achieve goals. It is also the guidance and control of action required to execute a program.It indicates that there should be definite plan/program for affective management (Shied, 2010). On the basis of these definitions it can be concluded that management is a process that includes strategic planning, setting objectives, managing resources, developing the human and financial assets needed to achie ve objectives and measuring results. It also includes recording facts and information for later use upon requirement. 2. Management Theories Contemporary theories of management tend to account for and help interpret the rapidly changing nature of today’s organizational environments.Several important management theories which are broadly classified as follows: 1. The Scientific Management School. 2. The Classical Organizational Theory School. 3. The Behavioural School. 4. The Management Science School. 5. Recent developments in Management Theory comprising works such as Systems Approach, Situational or Contingency theory, Chaos theory, and Team Building approach. This discussion will provide a general description of these management theories, how they have developed and the successes that they achieved. A Timeline Overview of Key Management theories pic] a. The Scientific Management School The first management theory is what is popularly referred to as Frederick Taylor’ s Scientific Management. Frederick Taylor (1856 – 1915) started the era of modern management. Taylor consistently sought to overthrow management â€Å"by rule of thumb† and replace it with actual timed observations leading to â€Å"the one best† practice. â€Å"Taylorism† involved breaking down the components of manual tasks in manufacturing environments, timing each movement (‘time and motion' studies) so that there could be a proven best way to perform each task.Thus employees could be trained to be ‘first class' within their job. This type of management was particularly relevant to performance drives e. g ‘Action On' projects. It has to be acknowledged that from an economic standpoint, Taylorism was an extreme success. Application of his methods yielded significant improvements in productivity. For example, improvements such as his shovel work at Bethlehem Works, which reduced the workers needed to shovel from 500 to 140. Henceforth, Taylor proposed four underlying principles of management: First, there is need to develop a ‘science of work’ to replace old rule-of-thumb methods: pay and other rewards linked to achievement of ‘optimum goals’ – measures of work performance and output; failure to achieve these would in contrast result in loss of earnings. – Second, workers to be ‘scientifically’ selected and developed: training each to be ‘first-class’ at some specific task. – Third the ‘science of work’ to be brought together with scientifically selected and trained people to achieve the best results. Finally, work and responsibility to be divided equally between workers and management cooperating together in close interdependence. This was a rigid system where every task became discrete and specialized. However, many critics, both historical and contemporary, have pointed out that Taylor’s theories tend to â€Å"dehumani ze† the workers. Therefore, in summary, while the scientific management technique has been employed to increase productivity and efficiency both in private and public services, it has also had the disadvantages of ignoring many of the human aspects of employment.This led to the creation of boring repetitive jobs with the introduction of systems for tight control and the alienation of shop floor employees from their managers. b. Classical Organizational Theory School In this category of management theory are the works of Henri Fayol’s administrative theory and Max Weber’s bureaucratic theory. Administrative Theory Henri Fayol’s administrative theory mainly focuses on the personal duties of management at a much more granular level. Fayol believed that management had five principle roles: †¢ Forecasting and planning. †¢ Organizing. †¢ Commanding Co-ordinating †¢ Controlling. Forecasting and planning was the act of anticipating the future a nd acting accordingly. Organization was the development of the institution’s resources, both material and human. Commanding was keeping the institution’s actions and processes running. Co-ordination was the alignment and harmonization of the group’s efforts. Finally, control meant that the above activities were performed in accordance with appropriate rules and procedures. Fayol also developed fourteen principles of administration to go along with management’s five primary roles.These principles are: specialization/division of labor, authority with responsibility, discipline, unity of command, unity of direction, subordination of individual interest to the general interest, remuneration of staff, centralization, scalar chain/line of authority, order, equity, stability of tenure, initiative, and esprit de corps. Fayol clearly believed personal effort and team dynamics were part of an â€Å"ideal† organization. Fayol’s five principle roles of management are still actively practiced today. The concept of giving appropriate authority with responsibility is also widely commented on and is well practiced.Unfortunately, his principles of â€Å"unity of command† and â€Å"unity of direction† are consistently violated in â€Å"matrix management†, the structure of choice for many of today’s companies. Bureaucratic Theory Max Weber (1864 – 1924) postulated that western civilization was shifting from â€Å"wertrational† (or value oriented) thinking, affective action (action derived from emotions), and traditional action (action derived from past precedent) to â€Å"zweckational† (or technocratic) thinking. He believed that civilization was changing to seek technically optimal results at the expense of emotional or humanistic content.Through analyses of organizations, Weber identified three basic types of legitimate authority: – Traditional authority: where acceptance of those in authority arose from tradition and custom. – Charismatic authority: where acceptance arises from loyalty to, and confidence in, the personal qualities of the ruler. – Rational-legal authority: where acceptance arises out of the office, or position, of the person in authority as bounded by the rules and procedures of the organization. It is the rational-legal authority form that exists in most organizations today and this is the form to which Weber ascribed the term ‘bureaucracy'.The main features of bureaucracy according to Weber were: †¢ A continuous organization or functions bounded by rules. †¢ That individual functioned within the limits of the specialization of the work, the degree of authority allocated and the rules governing the exercise of authority. †¢ A  hierarchical  structure of offices. †¢ Appointment to offices made on the grounds of technical competence only. †¢ The separation of officials from the ownership of the organization. †¢ The authority was vested in the official positions and not in the personalities that held these posts.Rules, decisions and actions were formulated and recorded in writing. It is not coincidence that Weber's writings were at a time of the major industrial revolutions and the growth of large complex organizations out of the cottage industries and/or entrepreneurial businesses. c. Behavioural School The key scholar under this category is Elton Mayo. The origin of behavioralism is the human relations movement that was a result of the Hawthorne Works Experiment that started in the early 1920s. Elton Mayo and his associates’ experiments disproved Taylor’s beliefs that science dictated hat the highest productivity was found in ‘the one best way’ and that way could be obtained by controlled experiment. The Hawthorne studies attempted to determine the effects of lighting on worker productivity. When these experiments showed no clear correlati on between light level and productivity the experiments then started looking at other factors. These factors that were considered when Mayo was working with a group of women included no rest breaks, no free more hours in the work-day/work-week or fewer hours in the workday/work-week.With each of these changes, productivity went up. When the women were put back to their original hours and conditions, they set a productivity record. These results showed that the group dynamics and social makeup of an organization were an important force either for or against higher productivity. This outcome caused the call for greater participation for the workers, greater trust and openness in the working environment, and a greater attention to teams and groups in the work place.Finally, while Taylor’s impacts were the establishment of the industrial engineering, quality control and personnel departments, the human relations movement’s greatest impact came in what the organization†™s leadership and personnel department were doing. The seemingly new concepts of â€Å"group dynamics†, â€Å"teamwork†, and organizational â€Å"social systems†, all stem from Mayo’s work in the mid-1920s. d. Management Science Theories Douglas McGregor (1906-1964) postulated management ideas as contained in â€Å"Theory X† and â€Å"Theory Y†.Using human behaviour research, he noted that the way an organization runs depends on the beliefs of its managers. â€Å"Theory X† gives a negative view of human behaviour and management that he considered to have dominated management theory from Fayol onwards – especially Taylorism. It also assumes that most people are basically immature, need direction and control, and are incapable of taking responsibility. They are viewed as lazy, dislike work and need a mixture of financial inducements and threat of loss of their job to make them work (‘carrot and stick’ mentality). T heory Y†, the opposite of â€Å"Theory X†, argues that people want to fulfil themselves by seeking self-respect, self-development, and self-fulfilment at work as in life in general. The six basic assumptions for ‘Theory Y’ are: work is as natural as play or rest – the average human being does not inherently dislike work, whether work is a source of pleasure or a punishment (to be avoided) depends on nature of the work and its management. Second, effort at work need not depend on threat of punishment – if committed to objectives then self-direction and self-control rather than external controls.Third, commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement. Satisfaction of ego and self-actualization needs can be directed towards the objectives of the organization. Fourth, the average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek responsibility. Fifth, high degrees of imagination, ing enuity and creativity are not restricted to a narrow group but are widely distributed in the population. Lastly, under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentials of the average human being are being only partly utilized. . Recent Developments in Management Theory Under this category of theory are the Systems Approach, Situational or Contingency theory, Chaos theory, and Team Building theory. The systems theory has had a significant effect on management science and understanding organizations. A system is a collection of part unified to accomplish an overall goal. If one part of the system is removed, the nature of the system is changed as well. A system can be looked at as having inputs (e. g. , resources such as raw materials, money, technologies, and people), processes (e. g. planning, organizing, motivating, and controlling), outputs (products or services) and outcomes (e. g. , enhanced quality of life or productivity for customers/clients, productivity ). Systems share feedback among each of these four aspects of the system. The Chaos theory is advocated by Tom Peters (1942). Chaos theorists suggest that systems naturally go to more complexity, and as they do so, they become more volatile and must, therefore, expend more energy to maintain that complexity. As they expend more energy, they seek more structure to maintain stability.This trend continues until the system splits, combines with another complex system or falls apart entirely. It will need an effective manager for the latter worst scenario not to happen. Team Building approach or theory emphasizes quality circles, best practices, and continuous improvement. It is a theory that mainly hinges on reliance on teamwork. It also emphasizes flattening of management pyramid, and reducing the levels of hierarchy. Finally, it is all about consensus management – i. e. , involving more people at all levels in decision-making. 3. Management theory applied to AON II. WHAT A MANA GER DOESManaging, like all other practices – whether medicine, music composition, engineering, accountancy, or even baseball – is an art; it is know-how. It is doing things in the light of the realities of a situation. Managers just don't go out and perform their responsibilities. A good manager should discover how to master 05 basic functions: planning, organizing, staffing, leading and controlling. †¢ Planning:  This step involves mapping out exactly how to achieve a particular goal. For example, that the organization's goal is to improve company sales. The manager first needs to decide which steps are necessary to accomplish that goal.These steps may include increasing advertising, inventory, and sales staff. These necessary steps are developed into a plan. When the plan is in place, the manager can follow it to accomplish the goal of improving company sales. †¢ Organizing:  After a plan is in place, a manager needs to organize his team and materials a ccording to his plan. Assigning work and granting authority are two important elements of organizing. †¢ Staffing:  After a manager discerns his area's needs, he may decide to beef up his staffing by recruiting, selecting, training, and developing employees.A manager in a large organization often works with the company's human resources department to accomplish this goal. †¢ Leading:  A manager needs to do more than just plan, organize, and staff her team to achieve a goal. She must also lead. Leading involves motivating, communicating, guiding, and encouraging. It requires the manager to coach, assist, and problem solve with employees. †¢ Controlling:  After the other elements are in place, a manager's job is not finished. He needs to continuously check results against goals and take any corrective actions necessary to make sure that his area's plans remain on track.All managers at all levels of every organization perform these functions, but the amount of time a manager spends on each one depends on both the level of management and the specific organization. Roles performed by managers In his classic book,  The Nature of Managerial Work,  Henry Mintzberg describes a set of ten roles that a manager fills. These roles fall into three categories: †¢ Interpersonal:  This role involves human interaction. †¢ Informational:  This role involves the sharing and analyzing of information. †¢ Decisional:  This role involves decision making.The below table  contains a more in-depth look at each category of roles that help managers carry out all five functions described in the preceding â€Å"Functions of Managers† section. Mintzberg's Set of Ten Roles | | |Category | |Role | |Activity | | |Informational | |Monitor | |Seek and receive information; scan periodicals and reports; maintain personal contact with stakeholders. | | | | | |Disseminator | |Forward information to organization members via memos, reports, an d phone calls. | | | | |Spokesperson | |Transmit information to outsiders via reports, memos, and speeches. | | | |Interpersonal | |Figurehead | |Perform ceremonial and symbolic duties, such as greeting visitors and signing legal documents. | | | | |Leader | |Direct and motivate subordinates; counsel and communicate with subordinates. | | | | |Liaison | |Maintain information links both inside and outside organization via mail, phone calls, and meetings. | | |Decisional | |Entrepreneur | |Initiate improvement projects; identify new ideas and delegate idea responsibility to thers. | | | | | |Disturbance handler | |Take corrective action during disputes or crises; resolve conflicts among subordinates; adapt to environments. | | | | |Resource allocator | |Decide who gets resources; prepare budgets; set schedules and determine priorities. | | | | |Negotiator | |Represent department during negotiations of union contracts, sales, purchases, and budgets. | | | Skills needed by managers Not everyone can be a manager. Certain  skills,  or abilities to translate knowledge into action that results in desired performance, are required to help other employees become more productive. These skills fall under the following categories: Technical:  This skill requires the ability to use a special proficiency or expertise to perform particular tasks. Accountants, engineers, market researchers, and computer scientists, as examples, possess technical skills. Managers acquire these skills initially through formal education and then further develop them through training and job experience. Technical skills are most important at lower levels of management. †¢ Human:  This skill demonstrates the ability to work well in cooperation with others. Human skills emerge in the workplace as a spirit of trust, enthusiasm, and genuine involvement in interpersonal relationships. A anager with good human skills has a high degree of self-awareness and a capacity to understand or empathize with the feelings of others. Some managers are naturally born with great human skills, while others improve their skills through classes or experience. No matter how human skills are acquired, they're critical for all managers because of the highly interpersonal nature of managerial work. †¢ Conceptual:  This skill calls for the ability to think analytically. Analytical skills enable managers to break down problems into smaller parts, to see the relations among the parts, and to recognize the implications of any one problem for others.As managers assume ever-higher responsibilities in organizations, they must deal with more ambiguous problems that have long-term consequences. Again, managers may acquire these skills initially through formal education and then further develop them by training and job experience. The higher the management level, the more important conceptual skills become. †¢ Designing skill is the ability to solve problems in wa ys that will benefit the enterprise. To be effective, particularly at upper organizational levels, managers must be able to do more than see a problem.In addition, they must have the skill of a good design engineer in working out a practical solution to a problem. Managers must also have that valuable skill of being able to design a workable solution to the problem in the light of the realities they face. It has, however, got to be mentioned that the relative importance of these skills may differ at various levels in the organization hierarchy. Although all four categories contain skills essential for managers, their relative importance tends to vary by level of managerial responsibility.